The Child and Adolescent Learners

and Learning Principles

 Course Description

• This course focuses on child and adolescent development with

emphasis on current research and theories on biological, linguistic,
cognitive, social and emotional dimensions of development.
• Further, this includes factors that affect the progress of development of
the learners and appropriate pedagogical principles applicable for each
developmental level of the learners.
• The course also addresses policies, guidelines and procedures that
provide safe and secure learning environments, and the use of
positive and non-violent discipline in the management of learner
behavior.
 Growth
• Pertains to the physical change and increase in size
• Can be measured quantatively
• Indicators include height, weight, bone size and density
• The growth rate is rapid during PRE NATAL, NEONATAL, INFANCY,
ADOLESCENCE
• Slows down during childhood
• Minimal during adulthood
Development

• Involves increase in complexity of function

and skill progression
• The capacity and skill of a person to adapt
to the environment
• Pertains to the behavior al aspect of growth
Maturation
• Consists of changes that occur relatively independent
from the environment
• Usually considered to be GENETICALLY programmed-
the result of heredity
Heredity

•The process of transmitting biological

traits from parents to offsprings through
genes (basic unit of heredity)
 Environment: Refers to the surrounding condition that influences growth and
development

• Environment System Ecological Systems Theory (Urie Bronfenbrenner, 1979)

• Microsystem- setting in which the person or individual lives; most immediate, has the direct
impact (family, school, peers, neighbors, religious institutions)
• Mesosystem-relations between the microsystems or connections between contexts
(interactions between parents and teachers, relationship between peers and the family,
etc)
• Exosystem- when experiences in another social setting in which the individual does not
have an active role influences what he or she experiences in an immediate context
• Macrosystem- involves the CULTURE in which the individuals live(ethnicity, socio economic
status, heritage, values); evolving
• Chronosystem-the patterning of environmental events and transitions over one’s life span-
includes sociohistorical circumstances (e.g. separation, changing roles of women)
Principles of Development
 10 Principles of Development

• Development follows a definite and predictable pattern

• Early foundations are critical
• All individuals are different;the rate of development is not the same for all individuals
• Each phase of development has a characteristic pattern of behavior
• Maturation and learning play important roles in development
• Each phase of development has hazards
• Development is aided by stimulation
• Development is affected by cultural changes
• There are social expectations for every stage of development
• Development is sequential following sequence of steps or stages of progression
Stages of Development
 10 Stages of Development

• Pre Natal
• Infancy
• Babyhood
• Early Childhood
• Late Childhood
• Puberty
• Adolescence
• Early Adulthood
• Middle Adulthood
• Late Adulthood
Characteristics of Each Stage
of Development
 Pre Natal
• Germinal Stage (fertilization to 2 weeks)
• Period of zygote, cell division, zygote from the oviduct travels down to the fallopian tube and then
to the uterus where implantation begins
• Embryonic Stage (2 weeks to 2 months or 8 weeks)
• Period of the embryo, blastocyst implanted in the uterus, umbilical cord attaches to the placenta,
foundations for the eyes, nose, ears, mouth extremities and the digestive system (8 th week)
• Considered to be the most critical period for the reason that the embryo is most vulnerable to
damage and defect
• First Trimester: almost all birth defects occur and chances are the defects will be permanent
• Fetal Period(8 weeks to birth)
• Period of the fetus; formation of the first bone cells, various organs grow functionally and take the
appearance of the human body; fetus can now kick and can manipulate its extremities and an open
its mouth, frown and turn its head as well as take few breaths (3 months); eyelids can be opened,
develops grasps, more than enough taste buds (6th month); round and heave and is able to lift its
head (8th-9th month
 Infancy (birth to 2 weeks)
• Transition period intervening between birth and two weeks of life and
identified as the shortest of all development period
• Period of Partunate (fetal body had emerged from the mother’s body
until the umbilical cord has ben cut and tied)
• Period of the neonate(cutting and tying of the umbilical cord to the end
of the second week of the postnatal life)
• Newborn up to two days- Typically unattractive and are extremely
feeble
• Most often asleep, drowsy, cries and gets excited easily
• Sensitive to brightness; visual images are likely to be blurred
• Roots of language are language, crying, cooing and babbling
 Babyhood (2nd week to 2nd year of life)
• Developmental Tasks: Learning to walk, Learning to take solid foods, having
organs of elimination under partial control, achieving reasonable
psychological stability especially in hunger, rhythm and sleep, relating
emotionally to parents and siblings and learning the foundations of speech
• Hand and Leg skills
• Crying, cooing, babbling, gesturing and emotional expressions are examples
of pre speech forms of communications
• Common emotional problems involve anger, fear, curiosity, joy, affection
• Babies are capable of establishing or forming friendships
• Non-moral (lack of a scale of values and conscience; demonstrate obedience
to rules without question)
 Early Childhood Stage (2-6 years of life)
• Problem or troublesome age, toy age, pre school age, pre gang age, exploratory
and questioning age
• Developmental tasks: Control of elimination, self feeding, self dressing and doing
some thing without much help, development of motor skills that allow the child
to explore and do things to satisfy his curiosity and acquisition of adequate
vocabulary to communicate his thoughts and feelings with those around him/her
• Heightened emotionality
• Presence of significant others or primary group is also given importance as they
serve as models for the child
• Play activities to learn by doing
• Teachable moment for acquiring skills
• Concept of morality emerge as a result of interactions with adults and peers
 Late Childhood Stage (6-12 years)
• Period for learning the basic skills of life
• Elementary school years
• Troublesome age, sloppy age, quarrelsome age, gang age, age of conformity,
critical period in the achievement drive
• Physical growth is at slow and relatively even
• Children in this age win recognition by doing able to do things
• Developmental tasks: learning physical skills for group or organized games,
learning to get along with age-mates and members of his family and
community, learning basic skills like reading, writing and numeracy, develop
appropriate masculine and feminine roles, develop healthy self concept and
conscience, achieve personal independence, learning to perform the different
roles, make decisions, solve problems
 Pre Adolescence/ Puberty (10-14 years
• Pubertas (“age of manhood”)
• Closing years of childhood and the beginning years of adolescence
• Growth spurt
• Certain developmental changes occur as manifested by internal and external
changes in the body (primary and secondary sex characteristics)
• Primary Sex Characteristics: Menarche/Nocturnal emissions
• Secondary sex characteristics-physical features which distinguish males from
females and may be the source of appeal among the members of the
opposite sex
• Has an important implication in the personality development of the person;
development of positive attitudes towards one’s body and oneself in general
 Adolescence (13-18 years)
• Age when the person becomes integrated into the society of adults; the age
when the child no longer feels that he is below the level of his elders but equal
at least in rights
• Developing independence and establishing a sense of identity
• Heightened emotionality (a time of “storm and stress”)
• Increased peer-group influence; more mature patterns of social behavior; new
social groupings; new values in the selection of friends and leaders and social
acceptance
• Relationships between adolescents and members of their families tend to
deteriorate in early adolescence though these relationships often improve as
adolescence grows to close
 Adulthood Stage (20-65 years old
• Need for love and intimacy; becomes more fulfilling in marriage with the
involvement of commitment
• Need for generativity is through achievement
• Burn out and alienation become a problem with work
• Moral development possesses responsibility for the welfare of others
• Changes in the primary senses and the organ reserve decline upon growing
older
• Menopause for women and male climacteric (low levels of testosterone, loss
of libido and potency, nervousness, depression, impaired memory, fatigue,
insomnia, sweating and hot flushes)signify the decline of sex and reproduction
 Old Age
• Slow physical, intellectual and social activities
• Gradual decline of cognition in older life
• Affiliation needs are more important than
achievement needs
• Symptoms of senility: severe memory loss,
rambling conversation, disorientation and
personality change
Theories of Development
 Theories of Development
• Sigmund Freud: Psycho Analytic Theory
• Erik Erikson: Psychosocial Development
• Jean Piaget: Cognitive Development Theory
• Albert Bandura: Social Learning Theory
• Havighurst’s Developmental Stages and Tasks
• Sullivan’s Interpersonal Model of Personality Development
• Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
• Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development
• Fowler’s Stages of Faith
Theories of Development
Sigmund Freud: Psycho Analytic Theory

• Every biological creature has

Goals/Motives/Urges that must be satisfied. If
these are suppressed, conflicts occur and these
would play a major role in determining the
character of one’s social and personality
development
• Every person has psychic (mental) energy that
he/she uses to think, to learn and to perform
mental functions and satisfy the basic urges
(INSTINCTS)
• 2 Kinds: EROS (Life instinct) and the THANATOS
(death instinct)
3 levels of the mind

• Consciousness (Focus of our attention)

• Preconscious (all which can be retrieved from
memory)
• Unconscious (part you cannot see but it
governs our behavior; repository of our wishes
and impulses (some may be too frightening or
painful for one to acknowledge;)
• ID (pleasure principle)
• EGO (reality principle)
• SUPER EGO (Ideal/Morality principle)
Psychosexual Stages
Erik Erikson: Psychosocial Development

• Each person goes through the 8 stages of

psycho social development. In each stage, a
person experiences a psychosocial crisis
which could have a positive or negative
outcome for personality development
• Successful completion of each stage results
in a healthy personality and acquisition of
basic virtues
• Failure to successfully complete a stage can
result in a reduced ability to complete
further stages and therefore a more
Jean Piaget: Cognitive Development Theory
 Kohlberg’s Moral
Development Theory
Albert Bandura: Social Learning Theory
• Children observe the
people around them
• They pay attention;
encode and imitate
 Sullivan’s Interpersonal Model of Personality
Development
Stage Age Description

Infancy 0-1 1/2 Infant learns to rely on caregivers to meet needs and desires

Childhood 1 ½ to 6 Child begins to learn and to delay immediate gratification of needs and desires

Juvenile 6-9 Child forms fulfilling peer relationships

Preadolescence 9-12 Child relates successfully to same sex peers

Early Adolescence 12-14 Adolescent learns to be independent and forms relationships with members of the
opposite sex

Late Adolescence 14-21 Person establishes an intimate, long lasting relationship with someone of the opposite
sex
 Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development
Level and Stage Description
Orientation of Individual Survival Concentrates on what is best for self; selfish; dependent on others
Transition
Transition 1: From Selfishness to Recognizes connections to others; Makes responsible choices in terms of self and
Responsibility others
Goodness and Self sacrifice Puts needs of others ahead of own; Feels responsible for others; Is independent; May
use guilt to manipulate others when attempting to help
Transition 2: From Goodness to Truth Decision based on intentions and consequences not on others’ responses; Considers
needs of self and others; Wants to help others while being responsible to self

Morality of Non Violence Sees self and others as morally equal; Assumes responsibilities for own decisions; basic
tenet to hurt no one including self, Conflict between selfishness or selflessness; self-
judgment is not dependent on others’ perceptions but rather on consequence and
intentions of actions
 Fowler’s Stages of Faith
Stage Age Description

Pre Stage: Undifferentiated Faith Infant Trust, hope and love compete with environmental inconsistencies or
threats
Stage 1: Intuitive-Projective Faith Toddler-PS Imitates parental behaviors and attitudes; Has no understanding of
spiritual concepts
Stage 2-Mythical-Literal Faith School Age Accepts existence of a deity; religious and moral beliefs are
symbolized by stories; appreciates other’s viewpoints; accepts
concepts of reciprocal fairness;

Stage 3-Synthetic-Conventional Faith Adolescent Questions values and religious beliefs in an attempt to form own
identity
Stage 4-Individuative-Reflective Faith Young Adult Assumes responsibility for own attitudes and beliefs

Stage 5- Conjunctive Faith Adult Integrates others perspectives about faith into own definition of truth

Stage 6- Universalizing Faith Adult Makes concept of “I”

Teaching and Learning
What is Teaching?
• Organized, purposeful and deliberate efforts
designed to bring about certain desirable
ends to a person or a group of persons.
• is a “giving off” process
• As involving more of the learner than of the
teacher
• Is a system of actions and interactions
between the teacher and his students
• Is inherently a humane activity
What is Teaching?
• Is an inquiry process
• Provides the learners with basic tools of
learning so in the process they become self
sufficient and self reliant individuals
• Is structuring the learning environment
for students
• Is a complex process
• Is a science and as an art
Demands of the 21st Century
• Solving problems flexibly
• Thinking Critically and Creatively
• Using knowledge and skills in new
situations
• Collaboration
• Communication skills
• Technology Literacy
 20th Century vs. 21st Century Learning

20th Century Classrooms 21st Century Classrooms

 

Time-based Outcome-based
Focus on memorization of Focus on what students KNOW,
discrete facts CAN DO

Lessons focus on lower level of Learning is designed on upper

Bloom’s Taxonomy – levels of Bloom’s – synthesis,
knowledge, comprehension and analysis and evaluation
application (HOTS)

Textbook-driven Research-driven
Passive learning Active learning
 20th Century vs. 21st Century Learning
20th Century Classrooms 21st Century Classrooms
 

Learners work in isolation – classroom Learners work collaboratively with

within 4 walls classmates and others around the
world – the Global Classroom

Teacher-centered:  teacher is center of Student-centered:  teacher is

attention and provider of facilitator/coach
information

Little or no student freedom Great deal of student freedom

Fragmented curriculum Integrated and Interdisciplinary

curriculum
Grades averaged Grades are based on what was learned
 20th Century vs. 21st Century Learning
Low expectations High expectations We expect, and
ensure, that all students succeed
in learning at high levels.  Some
may go higher – we get out of
their way to let them do that.

Teacher is judge.  No one else sees Self, Peer and Other assessments. 
student work. Public audience, authentic
assessments.

Curriculum/School is irrelevant Curriculum is connected to

and meaningless to the students. students’ interests, experiences,
talents and the real world.
 20th Century vs. 21st Century Learning
Print is the primary vehicle of Performances, projects and
learning and assessment. multiple forms of media are used
for learning and assessment.

Diversity in students is ignored. Curriculum and instruction

address student diversity.

Literacy is the 3 R’s – reading, Multiple literacies of the 21st

writing and math century – aligned to living and
working in a globalized new
millennium.
21st Century Learning
• Collaboration
• Digital Literacy
• Critical Thinking
• Problem Solving
• Creativity
• Innovation
• Effective Communication
LEARNING becomes an
adventure!
Principles of Teaching and
Learning
What is LEARNING?
 Principles of Learning
• Learning is an experience which occurs inside the learner and is activated
by the learner
• Learning is the discovery of the personal meaning and relevance of ideas
• Learning is a consequence of experience
• Learning is a cooperative and collaborative process
• Learning is an evolutionary process
• Learning is sometimes a painful process
• The process of learning is emotional as well as intellectual
• The process of learning is highly unique and individual
• The learners are one of the richest resources for learning
 11 Principles for Successful Teaching
(James Mursell and Witherington)
• Principle of CONTEXT (for meaningful learning)
• Principle of FOCUS (for purposeful learning)
• Principle of CLEARLY DEFINED OBJECTIVES
• Principle of SOCIALIZATION
• Principle of INDIVIDUALIZATION
• Principle of SEQUENCE
• Principle of EVALUATION
• Principle of APPERCEPTION
• Principle of MOTIVATION
• Principle of PREPARATION or MENTAL SET
• Principle of SELF ACTIVITY
• Principle of INTEGRATION
 John Dewey’s 11 Principles of Teaching
• Teaching is good when it is anchored on the psychology of
learning
• Teaching is good when it is well planned
• Teaching is good when the learners are made conscious of the
goals and aims to be accomplished
• Good teaching requires a rich environment of instructional
materials and devices
• Teaching is good when there is a provision to meet individual
differences
 John Dewey’s Principles of Teaching
• Teaching is good when it utilizes the past experiences of the learner
• Teaching is good when the learner is stimulated to think and to reason
• Teaching is good when it is governed by democratic principles
• Teaching is good when the method used is supplemented by another
method and instructional devices
• Teaching is good when evaluation is made an integral part of the T-L
process
• Teaching is good when review or drill is made an integral part of the T-L
process
 Carnegie Mellon’s 8 Teaching Principles
• Teaching is a multifaceted activity involving multiple tasks
and goals
• Effective teaching involves acquiring relevant knowledge
about the learners
• Effective teaching involves aligning the three major
components of instruction: learning objectives,
assessment and instructional activities
• Effective teaching involves articulating explicit
expectations regarding the learning objectives and policies
 Carnegie Mellon’s 8 Teaching Principles
• Effective teaching involves prioritizing the knowledge and
skills we chose to focus on
• Effective teaching involves recognizing and overcoming
blind spots
• Effective teaching involves adopting appropriate teaching
roles to support learning goals
• Effective teaching involves progressively refining the
courses based on reflection and feedback
 7 Principles of Teaching and Learning
http://detcms.det.wa.edu.au/detcms/professional learning

• Principle of Opportunity to Learn

• Principle of Connection and Challenge
• Principle of Action and Reflection
• Principle of Motivation and Purpose
• Principle of Inclusivity and Difference
• Principle of Independence and Collaboration
• Principle of a Supportive Environment
 Home and Pine’s 9 Principles of Learning
• Learning is an experience which occurs inside the learner and is activated by
the learner
• Learning is the discovery of the personal meaning and relevance of ideas
• Learning is a consequence of experience
• Learning is a cooperative and collaborative process
• Learning is an evolutionary process
• Learning is sometimes a painful process
• One of the riches resources for learning is the learner himself/herself
• The process of learning is emotional as well as intellectual
• The process of problem solving and learning is highly unique and individual
Elements of Teaching
Elements of Teaching
• Learner with his/her cognitive(five senses, instinct,
imagination, memory and intellect) and appetitive( feelings
and emotions and rational will) faculties
• Teacher with his professional and personal attributes
• Learning Environment (physical and psychological
environment)
21 Century Learners
st
The NET Generation Today
• 89% uses email
• 64% sends instant messages
regularly
• 93% have a Face book and or My
Space page
• 67% receive news from on line
sources
• 74% watch or produce video on line
• 56% read or has a blog
• 43% play online games
• 72% search for information online
and more likely to check on
Wikipedia rather than a book
The Digital
Native
21st Century Learners
• Called Gen Y’ers, Gen Z’ers, Millenials, Digital Natives,
Net Generation, Inter-nauts, Echo BoomersTechy
Savvy
• Easily distracted, Often off task, Don’t Read, Have
short attention span, More interested in information
breadth than depth
• Attentive only if tasks are interesting, intellectually
engaging, meaningful and relevant
• Learn By Doing
• Multi Taskers
“21 century learners call for
st

21 century teachers”
st
21 century TEACHER
st
Roles of a Teacher
M -anager
M -otivator
M -odel
P -ublic relations Specialist
P -arent Surrogate
F -acilitator
L -eader
I -nstructor
C -ounselor
C -urricularist
“Teachers like leaves everywhere abound.
Effective teachers like fruits are rarely found”
To be an effective teacher. . .

Compassion for the students (Compassion)

Passion for teaching (Commitment)
Mastery of the subject matter (Content)
Skills in teaching (Pedagogy)
“A good teacher/mentor recognizes that each person/student
has a different talent lying hidden and unexplored. His duty
is to UNEARTH it and help it blossom”
(JM Manchanda)
21st Century Educators
• Innovators
• Mentors
• Catalysts
• Facilitators
• Skillful
• Effective Communicators
• Lifelong learners
“A good teacher/mentor recognizes that each person/student
has a different talent lying hidden and unexplored. His duty
is to UNEARTH it and help it blossom”
(JM Manchanda)
Learning Environment
Principles in Classroom Management
• Consistent, proactive discipline is the crux of effective classroom
management
• Establish routines for daily tasks and needs (passing of papers,
collection of assignments, etc.)
• Make good use of every instructional moment. Minimize discipline
time to maximize instructional time
• Be aware of all actions and activities in the classroom
• Strike a balance between variety and challenge in students’ activities
• Treat minor disturbance calmly.
• Resolve minor inattention before they become major disruptions. “A
stitch on time saves nine”
• Reinforce positive behavior
Practical Considerations for Managing the
Classroom

• Organizing the physical environment

• Organizing Time
• Discipline
• Organizing Classroom Activities and Instructional Materials
• Maintaining the Activity Flow
3 M’s in Classroom Management

•M oment
•M aterials
•M an
Organizing the Physical Environment
• Try out a variety of classroom arrangements throughout the year to
adjust to emerging needs in the classroom
• Arrange furniture in such a way that you provide for a convenient flow
of traffic
• Work out physical arrangement of chairs that facilitates interactive
teaching-learning process.
A conducive physical learning environment
includes:

• Conveniently arranged furniture

• Flexible seating arrangement
• Clean, well-lighted, well-ventilated, noise/ distraction-free and fresh
classroom.
In a well-arranged classroom. . .
• Teacher can easily see all the students
• Students can easily see all presentations and demonstrations
• Frequently used materials are easily accessible
• Pathways facilitate traffic flow
• It is easy to organize students into pairs, triads and small groups
Organizing Time
• Maximize instructional time by:
• Working for smooth classroom transitions
• Allowing for no idle time by using fillers
• Remaining involved with the students through out the period
• Establishing routines for daily tasks and needs
• Minimizing “waiting time”
• Scheduling the activities
Discipline
• Disciplinary Problems may be traced to:
-Unfavorable learning conditions
-Teacher’s poor management skills
-Students’ varied background
A conducive classroom climate is. . .
• Business-like yet non-threatening. It is a classroom
where:
• Specific classroom rules are clear
• Rules are discussed in class
• Students are involved in the design of rules
• Techniques to acknowledge and reinforce acceptable
behaviors are employed
• Negative consequences are provided
• Teacher is aware of the students’ needs
• Students’ responsibility for their own behavior is enhanced
Building Positive Learning Environment
• The school or classroom
• Is safe for children
• Is non threatening
• Offers opportunities for INTERACTIVE experiences (hands-on
learning, social interaction, cooperative learning, real-life
problem solving and autonomous learning)
• Studies students’ cultures
• Commends creativity
• Makes rooms for all kinds of learners
• Helps students know each other
• Celebrates diversity and success
• Specific, positive classroom rules are clear
• Rules are discussed in class
• Students are involved in the design of rules
• Techniques to acknowledge and reinforce acceptable
behaviors are employed
• Negative consequences are provided
• Teacher is aware of the students’ needs
• Students’ responsibility for their own behavior is enhanced
Enhancing Classroom Routine and
Operation
• Provide for smooth transitions
• Establish routines for daily tasks and needs (passing of papers,
collection of assignments, etc.). Ensure that the students
understand how the class will begin and end, how to get and put
away materials, how to move around in the classroom/school
premises, how to use time wisely
• Make good use of every instructional moment. Minimize
discipline time to maximize instructional time
• Strike a balance between variety and challenge in students’
activities
• Resolve minor inattention before they become major
disruptions. “A stitch on time saves nine”
• Reinforce positive behavior
• Try out a variety of classroom arrangements/student
groupings throughout the year to adjust to emerging needs in
the classroom
• Remind them to listen respectfully to their peers’ ideas, make
positive suggestions and build on one another’s idea. Teachers
be ready to share his or her own imperfections
• Maximize instructional time by:
• Working for smooth classroom transitions
• Allowing for no idle time by using fillers
• Remaining involved with the students through out the period
• Establishing routines for daily tasks and needs
• Minimizing “waiting time”
• Scheduling the activities