Chemical Process Design

Lecture- 4
Rudra Kumar
6 March 2023
Email: [email protected]
Topic-2 Heuristics and short cut methods for process equipment design
2.1 Apply heuristic rules and short methods for the sizing of tanks and process vessels.

2.2 Apply heuristic rules and short methods for sizing engines, pipes, pumps, fans, and
compressors.

2.3 Apply heuristic rules and short methods for the sizing of heat exchangers and equipment
for heat transfer.

2.4 Apply heuristic rules and short methods for the sizing of distillation and absorption
towers.

2.5 Apply heuristic rules and short methods for the sizing of chemical reactors.

2.6 Understand the process of identifying and specifying services, particularly those related
to heating and cooling.

2.7 Know and apply the techniques of individual costing of process equipment (CAPCOST)
Heuristic: A heuristic, or heuristic technique, is any approach to problem-solving that uses a
practical method or various shortcuts in order to produce solutions that may not be optimal
but are sufficient given a limited timeframe or deadline.

Four characteristics of any heuristic

1. A heuristic does not guarantee a solution.
2. It may contradict other heuristics
3. It can reduce the time to solve a problem.
4. Its acceptance depends on the immediate context instead of on an absolute standard

 A heuristic is a statement concerning equipment sizes, operating conditions, and

equipment performance that reduces the need for calculations. A shortcut method
replaces the need for extensive calculations in order to evaluate equipment sizes,
operating conditions, and equipment performance.

An experienced engineer retains a body of information, made up largely of heuristics and

shortcut calculation methods, that is available to help solve new problems.
Example : For the toluene hydrodealkylation process in the Figure and Tables 1 and 2,
estimate the size of the equipment and other operating parameters for the following units.
(Use the information provided for the heuristics rules)
a. V-102
b. E-105
c. P-101
d. C-101
e. T-101
f. H-101
Figure 1: Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for Benzene Distillation from toluene hydrodealkylation process
Table 1:
Table 2: Equipment Summary for Toluene Hydrodealkylation PFD
Table 2: Equipment Summary for Toluene
Hydrodealkylation PFD
 Heuristic rules and short methods for the sizing of tanks and process vessels

VESSELS (DRUMS)
1. Drums are relatively small vessels to provide surge capacity or separation of entrained
phases.

2. Liquid drums usually are horizontal.

3. Gas/liquid separators are vertical.

4. Optimum length/diameter = 3, but a range of 2.5-5.0 is common.

5. Holdup time is 5 min half full for reflux drums, 5-10 min for a product feeding another
tower.
6. In drums feeding a furnace, 30 min half full is allowed.
7. Knockout drums ahead of compressors should hold no less than 10 times the liquid
volume passing through per minute.
 The Knock out drum is a vessel in the flare header system designed to remove &
accumulate condensed & entrained liquids from the relief gases. Both the horizontal &
vertical design is a common consideration for the Knock out drum, which is determined
based on the operating parameters as well as other plant conditions.
8. Liquid/liquid separators are designed for settling velocity of 2-3 in./min.

9. Gas velocity in gas/liquid separators, V = k (ρL/ρV - 1)1/2 m/sec, with k =0.35 with mesh
deentrainer, k =0.00305 without mesh deentrainer.

10. Entrainment removal of 99% is attained with mesh pads of 4-12 in. thicknesses; 6 in.
thickness is popular.

11. For vertical pads, the value of the coefficient in Step 9 is reduced by a factor of 2/3.

 WIRE MESH PAD DEENTRAINERS: Pads

of fine wire mesh induce coalescence of
impinging droplets into larger ones,
which then separate freely from the gas
phase.
12. Good performance can be expected at velocities of 30-100 % of those calculated with the
given k ; 75% is popular.

13. Disengaging spaces of 6-8 in. ahead of the pad and 12 in. above the pad are suitable.

14. Cyclone separators can be designed for 95% collection of 5 μm particles, but usually only
droplets greater than 50 μm need be removed.
Solution:
a. V-102 High-Pressure Phase Separator
we use the following heuristics:

Rule 3 → Vertical vessel

Rule 4 → L/D between 2.5 and 5 with optimum at 3.0
Rule 5 → Liquid hold-up time is 5 min based on 1/2 volume of vessel
Rule 9 → Gas velocity u is given by

u = k (ρL/ρV - 1)1/2 m/s

where k = 0.0305 for vessels without mesh entrainers

Rule 12 → Good performance obtained at 30% – 100% of u from Rule 9; typical value is
75%
From Table 1, we have

Vapor flow = Stream 8 = 9200 kg/h, P = 23.9 bar, T = 38°C

Liquid flow = Streams 17 + 18 = 11570 kg/h, P = 2.8 bar, T = 38°C

ρv = 8 kg/m3 and ρl = 850 kg/m3 (estimated from Table 2)

From Rule 9, u = k (ρL/ρV - 1)1/2 m/s

we get u = 0.0305[850/8 − 1]0.5 = 0.313 m/s

Use uact = (0.75)(0.313) = 0.23 m/s

Mass flowrate of vapor = u ρv πD2/4 = 9200/3600 = 2.56 kg/s

Solving for D,
Table 1:
 ( )
𝑢 ρ𝑉 π 𝐷 2 0.23 ×8 × 3.14 × 𝐷 2 0.5
2.56= =
2.56 × 4
4 4 𝐷= =1.33 𝑚
0.23 × 8 ×3.14
Holdup time is 5 min half full for reflux drums
 From Rule 5, we have volume of liquid = 0.5 L πD2/4 = 0.5 x 3.14 x (1.33)2 L/4 = 0.726 L m3

5 minutes of liquid flow = (5)(60)(11,570)/(850 x 3600) = 1.13 m3

Equating the two results above, we get L = 1.56 m.

 From Rule 4, we have L/D should be in range 2.5 to 5.

For our case L/D = 1.56/1.33 = 1.17

Because this is out of range, we should change to L = 2.5D = 3.3 m.

From Table 2, we see that the actual V-102 is a vertical vessel with D = 1.1 m, L = 3.5 m.
Heuristic rules and short methods for the sizing of heat exchangers and equipment for heat
transfer.
1. Take true countercurrent flow in a shell-and-tube exchanger as a basis.

2. Standard tubes are 3/4 in. OD, 1 in. triangular spacing, 16 ft long; a shell 1 ft dia
accommodates 100 sqft; 2 ft dia, 400 sqft, 3 ft dia, 1100 sqft.

3. Tube side is for corrosive, fouling, scaling, and high pressure fluids.

4. Shell side is for viscous and condensing fluids.

5. Pressure drops are 1.5 psi for boiling and 3-9 psi for other services.

6. Minimum temperature approach is 10 °C (20°F) with normal coolants, 5°C (10°F) or less with
refrigerants.

7. Water inlet temperature is 30 °C (90°F), maximum outlet 45 °C (115°F).

8. Heat transfer coefficients for estimating purposes, W/m2°C, (Btu/hr sqft °F): water to liquid,
850 (150); condensers, 850 (150); liquid to liquid, 280 (50); liquid to gas, (60) 10; gas to gas, 30
(5); reboiler, 1140 (200). Max flux in reboilers, 31.5 W/m2°C (10,000 Btu/hr sqft).

9. Double-pipe exchanger is competitive at duties requiring 9.3- 18.6 m2 (100-200 sqft).

10. Compact (plate and fin) exchangers have 1150 m2/m3 (350 sqft/cuft), and about 4 times the
heat transfer per cuft of shell-and-tube units.
11. Plate and frame exchangers are suited to high sanitation services, and are 25-40% cheaper in
stainless construction than shell-and-tube units.

12. Air coolers: Tubes are 0.75-1.00 in. OD, total finned Surface 15-20 m2/m2 (sqft/sqft bare
Surface), U = 450–570 W/m2 °C, (80-100 Btu/hr sqft bare Surface °F). Minimum approach
temperature = 22°C (40°F). Fan input power = 1.4–3.6 kW/(MJ/h) [2-5 HP/(MBtu/hr)].

13. Fired heaters: radiant rate, 37.6 kW/m2 (12,000 Btu/ hr sqft); convection rate, 12.5 kW/m2
(4000 Btu/hr ft2); cold oil tube velocity, 1.8 m/s (6 ft/sec); approx equal transfers of heat in the
two sections; thermal efficiency 70-90%; flue gas temperature 140-195 °C (250-350°F) above
feed inlet; stack gas temperature 345–510°C (650-950°F).
b. E-105 Product Cooler

From Table 2 we use the following heuristics:

Rule 1: Set F = 0.9
Rule 6: min. ΔT = 10°C
Rule 7: Water enters at 30°C and leaves at 40°C
Rule 8: U = 850 W/m2°C

From Table 1 and Figure that Rule 6 has been violated because ΔTmin = 8°C.

Log mean temperature, ΔTlm = [(105 − 40) − (38 − 30)]/ln[(105 − 40)/(38 − 30)] = 27.2°C

Q = 1085 MJ/h = 301 kW (from Table 2)

Heat exchange area, A = Q/UΔTlm F = (301,000)/(850 x 27.2 x 0.90) = 14.46 m2

From Rule 9, this heat exchanger should be a double-pipe or multiple pipe design.

Comparing our analysis with the information in Table 2 we get

Heuristic: Double-pipe design, Area = 14.46 m2
Table 2: Multiple-pipe design, Area = 12 m2
Heuristic Rules for Pumps

1. Power for pumping liquids: kW = (1.67)[Flow(m3/min)][ΔP(bar)]/ε, [hP = Flow (gpm) ΔP (psi)

difference)/(1714 x ε) ε= fractional efficiency.

2. Normal pump suction head (NPSH) of a pump must be in excess of a certain number,
depending on the kind of pumps and the conditions, if damage is to be avoided. NPSH =
(pressure at the eye of the impeller- vapor pressure)/(density). Common range is 1.2–6.1 m (4-
20 ft).

3. Specific speed NS = (rpm)(gpm)0.5/(head in ft)0.75. Pump may be damaged if certain limits of

NS are exceeded, and efficiency is best in some ranges.

4. Centrifugal pumps: Single stage for 0.057–18.9 m3/min (15-5000 gpm), 152 m (500 ft) max
head; multistage for 0.076–41.6 m3/min (20-11,000 gpm), 1675 m (5500 ft) max head.
Efficiency 45% at 100 gpm, 70% at 500 gpm, 80% at 10,000 gpm.

5. Axial pumps for 0.076–378 m3/min (20-100,000 gpm), 12 m (40 ft) head, 65-85% efficiency.
6. Rotary pumps for 0.00378–18.9 m3/min (1-5000 gpm), 15,200 m (50,000 ft) head, 50-80%
efficiency.

7. Reciprocating pumps for 0.0378–37.8 m3/min (10-10,000 gpm) , 300 km (1,000,000 ft) head
max. efficiency 70% at 7.46 kW (10 HP), 85 % at 37.3 kW (50 HP), 90 % at 373 kW (500 HP).
c. P-101
We use the following heuristics:
Rule 1: Power(kW) = (1.67)[Flow(m3/min)]ΔP(bar)/ε

Rules 4–7: Type of pump based on head

From Figure and Tables 1 and 2, we have

Flowrate (Stream 2) = 13,300 kg/h

Density of fluid = 870 kg/m3

ΔP = 25.8 - 1.2 = 24.6 bar = 288 m of liquid (head = ΔP/ρg)

Volumetric flowrate = (13,300)/(60 x 870) = 0.255 m3/min

Fluid pumping power = (1.67 x 0.255 x 24.6) = 10.5 kW

From Rules 4–7,
Pump choices are multistage centrifugal, rotary, and reciprocating.

Choose reciprocating to be consistent with Table 2. Typical ε = 0.75.

Power (shaft power) = 10.5/0.75 = 14.0 kW

→ compares with 14.2 kW from Table 2.

 Heuristic for compressors, fans, Blowers, and vacuum pumps
1. Fans are used to raise the pressure about 3% {12 in (30 cm) water}, blowers to raise less
than 2.75 barg (40 psig) and compressors to higher pressures, although the blower range is
commonly included in the compressor range.

2. Theoretical reversible adiabatic power = mz1RT1[({P2/P1}a -1)]/a

where T1 is inlet temperature, R = Gas Constant, z1 = compressibility, m = molar flow rate,
a = (k-1)/k and k = Cp/Cv.
Values of R: = 8.314 J/mol K = 1.987 Btu/lbmol R = 0.7302 atm ft3/lbmol R

3. Outlet temperature for reversible adiabatic process T2 = T1 (P2/P1)a.

4. Exit temperatures should not exceed 167–204°C (350–400 °F); for diatomic gases (C p/Cv =
1.4). This corresponds to a compression ratio of about 4.

5. Compression ratio should be about the same in each stage of a multistage unit,
ratio = (Pn/P1)1/n, with n stages.
6. Efficiencies of reciprocating compressors: 65% at compression ratios of 1.5, 75% at 2.0, and
80–85% at 3–6.

7. Efficiencies of large centrifugal compressors, 2.83–47.2 m3/s (6000–100,000 acfm) at suction,

are 76–78%.
8. For vacuum pumps use the following
Reciprocating piston type Down to 1 Torr
Rotary piston type Down to 0.001 Torr
Two-lobe rotary type Down to 0.0001 Torr
Steam jet ejectors 1-stage down to 100 Torr
3-stage down to 1 Torr
5-stage down to 0.05 Torr
9. A three-stage ejector needs 100 kg steam/kg air to maintain a pressure of 1 Torr.

10. In-leakage of air to evacuated equipment depends on the absolute pressure, Torr, and the
volume of the equipment, V in m3 (ft3) according to W = kV2/3 kg/h (lb/hr) with k = 0.98 (0.2)
when P > 90 Torr, k = 0.39 (0.08) between 3 and 20 Torr, and k = 0.12 (0.025) at less than 1 Torr.
d. C-101

we use the following heuristics:

Rule 2: Wrev adiab = mz1RT1[(P2/P1)a − 1]/a

From Table 2,
we have mass flow rate = 6770 kg/h,

T1 = 38°C = 311 K,
Molecular weight, MW = 8.45,

P1 = 23.9 bar, P2 = 25.5 bar

k = 1.41 (assume)
a = (k-1)/k= 0.2908 Z1 = 1
Molar flow rate, m = (6770)/(3600 x 8.45) = 0.223 kmol/s

Wrev adiab = mz1RT1[(P2/P1)a − 1]/a

= (0.223 x 1.0 x 8.314 x 311){(25.5/23.9)0.2908 − 1)}/0.2908 = 37.7 kW

using a compressor efficiency of 75%

Wactual = (37.7)/(0.75) = 50.3 kW

→ This checks with the shaft power requirement given in Table 2.

 Heuristics for Towers (Distillation and Gas Absorption)

1. Distillation is usually the most economical method for separating liquids, superior to
extraction, absorption crystallization, or others.

2. For ideal mixtures, relative volatility is the ratio of vapor pressures α12= P1*/P2*

3. Tower operating pressure is most often determined by the temperature of the condensing
media, 38–50°C (100–120 °F) if cooling water is used, or by the maximum allowable reboiler
temperature to avoid chemical decomposition/degradation.

4. Sequencing of columns for separating multicomponent mixtures:

a. Perform the easiest separation first, that is, the one least demanding of trays and reflux, and
leave the most difficult to the last.

b. When neither relative volatility nor feed composition varies widely, remove components one
by one as overhead products.
c. When the adjacent ordered components in the feed vary widely in relative volatility,
sequence the splits in order of decreasing volatility.

d. When the concentrations in the feed vary widely but the relative volatilities do not, remove
the components in order of decreasing concentration.

5. Economical optimum reflux ratio is in the range of 1.2 to 1.5 times the minimum reflux ratio,
Rmin.

6. The economically optimum number of theoretical trays is near twice the minimum value
Nmin.

7. The minimum number of trays is found with the Fenske-Underwood equation

Nmin = ln{[x/(1-x)]ovhd/[x/(1-x)]btms}/ln α.
8. Minimum reflux for binary or pseudo binary mixtures is given by the following when
separation is essentially complete (xD ≈ 1) and D/F is the ratio of overhead product to feed
rate:
RminD/F = 1/(α-1), when feed is at the bubble point

(Rmin + 1) D/F = α/(α-1), when feed is at the dew point

9. A safety factor of 10% of the number of trays calculated by the best means is advisable.

10. Reflux pumps are made at least 10% oversize.

11. The optimum value of the Kremser absorption factor A = (L/mV) is in the range of 1.25 to
2.0.

12. Reflux drums usually are horizontal, with a liquid holdup of 5 min half-full. A takeoff pot for
a second liquid phase, such as water in hydrocarbon systems, is sized for a linear velocity of
that phase of 1.3 m/s (0.5 ft/sec), minimum diameter is 0.4 m (16 in).
13. For towers about 0.9 m (3 ft) dia, add 1.2 m (4 ft) at the top for vapor disengagement, and
1.8 m (6 ft) at bottom for liquid level and reboiler return.

14. Limit the tower height to about 53 m (175 ft) max. because of wind load and foundation
considerations. An additional criterion is that L/D be less than 30 (20 < L/D < 30 often will
require special design).
 Heuristics for Tray Towers (Distillation and Gas Absorption)
1. For reasons of accessibility, tray spacings are made 0.5–0.6 m (20–24 in).
2. Peak efficiency of trays is at values of the vapor factor F s = uρ0.5 in the range of 1.2–1.5 m/s
{kg/m3}0.5 [1–1.2 ft/s {lb/ft3}0.5]. This range of Fs establishes the diameter of the tower.
Roughly, linear velocities are 0.6 m/s (2 ft/sec) at moderate pressures, and 1.8 m/s (6 ft/sec) in
vacuum.
3. Pressure drop per tray is on the order of 7.6 cm (3 in) of water or 0.007 bar (0.1 psi).
4. Tray efficiencies for distillation of light hydrocarbons and aqueous solutions are 60–90%; for
gas absorption and stripping, 10–20%.
5. Sieve trays have holes 0.6–0.7 cm (0.25–0.5 in) dia., area being 10% of the active cross
section.
6. Valve trays have holes 3.8 cm (1.5 in) dia. each provided with a liftable cap, 130–150 caps/m2
(12–14 caps/ft2) of active cross section. Valve trays are usually cheaper than sieve trays.
7. Bubblecap trays are used only when a liquid level must be maintained at low turndown ratio;
they can be designed for lower pressure drop than either sieve or valve trays.
8. Weir heights are 5 cm (2 in), weir lengths are about 75% of tray diameter, liquid rate—a
maximum of 1.2 m3/min m of weir (8 gpm/in of weir); multipass arrangements are used at
higher liquid rates.
 Heuristics for Packed Towers (Distillation and Gas Absorption)

1. Structured and random packings are suitable for packed towers less than 0.9 m (3 ft) when
low pressure drop is required.
2. Replacing trays with packing allows greater throughput and separation in existing tower shells.
3. For gas rates of 14.2 m3/min (500 ft3/min), use 2.5 cm (1 in) packing; for 56.6 m3/min (2000
ft3/min) or more, use 5 cm (2 in) packing.
4. Ratio of tower diameter to packing diameter should be >15:1.
5. Because of deformability, plastic packing is limited to 3–4 m (10–15 ft) and metal to 6.0–7.6 m
(20–25 ft) unsupported depth.
6. Liquid distributors are required every 5–10 tower diameters with pall rings, and at least every
6.5 m (20 ft) for other types of dumped packing.
7. Number of liquid distributors should be >32–55/m2 (3–5/ft2) in towers greater than 0.9 m (3 ft)
diameter, and more numerous in smaller columns.
8. Packed towers should operate near 70% of flooding (evaluated from Sherwood and Lobo
correlation).
9. Height equivalent to theoretical stage (HETS) for vapor-liquid contacting is 0.4–0.56 m (1.3–1.8
ft) for 2.5 cm (1 in) pall rings, and 0.76–0.9 m. (2.5–3.0 ft) for 5 cm (2 in) pall rings.
10. Generalized pressure drops Design Pressure Drops Design Pressure Drops
(cm of H2O/m of packing) (inches of H2O/ft of packing)

Absorbers and regenerators 2.1–3.3 0.25–0.40

(nonfoaming systems)

Absorbers and regenerators 0.8–2.1 0.10–0.25

Atmospheric/pressure stills 3.3–6.7 0.40–0.80

and fractionators

Vacuum stills and fractionators 0.8–3.3 0.10–0.40

Maximum value 8.33 1.0

e. T-101

We use the following heuristics:

Rule 5: Optimum reflux in the range of 1.2–1.5 Rmin

Rule 6: Optimum number of stages approximately 2Nmin

Rule 7: Nmin = ln{ [x/(1 − x)]ovhd/[x/(1 − x)]bot}/ln α

Rule 8: Rmin = {F/D}/(α − 1)

Rule 9: Use a safety factor of 10% on number of trays.

Rule 14: Lmax = 53 m and L/D < 30

We use the following heuristics:

Rule 2: Fs = uρv0.5 = 1.2 → 1.5 m/s(kg/m3)0.5

Rule 3: ΔPtray = 0.007 bar

Rule 4: εtray = 60 – 90 %

xovhd = 0.9962, xovhd = 0.0308, αovhd = 2.44, αbot = 2.13, αgeom ave = (αovhdαbot)0.5 = 2.28

Nmin = ln{ [0.9962/(1 − 0.9962)]/[0.0308/(1 − 0.0308)]} /ln (2.28) = 10.9