Chemical Process Design

Lecture- 6
Rudra Kumar
9 March 2022
Email: [email protected]
Example : For the toluene hydrodealkylation process in the Figure and Tables 1 and 2,
estimate the size of the equipment and other operating parameters for the following units.
(Use the information provided for the heuristics rules)
a. V-102
b. E-105
c. P-101
d. C-101
e. T-101
f. H-101
Table 1:
Table 2: Equipment Summary for Toluene Hydrodealkylation PFD
Table 2: Equipment Summary for Toluene
Hydrodealkylation PFD
 Heuristic for compressors, fans, Blowers, and vacuum pumps
1. Fans are used to raise the pressure about 3% {12 in (30 cm) water}, blowers to raise less
than 2.75 barg (40 psig) and compressors to higher pressures, although the blower range is
commonly included in the compressor range.

2. Theoretical reversible adiabatic power = mz1RT1[({P2/P1}a -1)]/a

where T1 is inlet temperature, R = Gas Constant, z1 = compressibility, m = molar flow rate,
a = (k-1)/k and k = Cp/Cv.
Values of R: = 8.314 J/mol K = 1.987 Btu/lbmol R = 0.7302 atm ft3/lbmol R

3. Outlet temperature for reversible adiabatic process T2 = T1 (P2/P1)a.

4. Exit temperatures should not exceed 167–204°C (350–400 °F); for diatomic gases (C p/Cv =
1.4). This corresponds to a compression ratio of about 4.

5. Compression ratio should be about the same in each stage of a multistage unit,
ratio = (Pn/P1)1/n, with n stages.
6. Efficiencies of reciprocating compressors: 65% at compression ratios of 1.5, 75% at 2.0, and
80–85% at 3–6.

7. Efficiencies of large centrifugal compressors, 2.83–47.2 m3/s (6000–100,000 acfm) at suction,

are 76–78%.
8. For vacuum pumps use the following
Reciprocating piston type Down to 1 Torr
Rotary piston type Down to 0.001 Torr
Two-lobe rotary type Down to 0.0001 Torr
Steam jet ejectors 1-stage down to 100 Torr
3-stage down to 1 Torr
5-stage down to 0.05 Torr
9. A three-stage ejector needs 100 kg steam/kg air to maintain a pressure of 1 Torr.

10. In-leakage of air to evacuated equipment depends on the absolute pressure, Torr, and the
volume of the equipment, V in m3 (ft3) according to W = kV2/3 kg/h (lb/hr) with k = 0.98 (0.2)
when P > 90 Torr, k = 0.39 (0.08) between 3 and 20 Torr, and k = 0.12 (0.025) at less than 1 Torr.
d. C-101

we use the following heuristics:

Rule 2: Wrev adiab = mz1RT1[(P2/P1)a − 1]/a

From Table 2,
we have mass flow rate = 6770 kg/h,

T1 = 38°C = 311 K,
Molecular weight, MW = 8.45,

P1 = 23.9 bar, P2 = 25.5 bar

k = 1.41 (assume)
a = (k-1)/k= 0.2908 Z1 = 1
Molar flow rate, m = (6770)/(3600 x 8.45) = 0.223 kmol/s

Wrev adiab = mz1RT1[(P2/P1)a − 1]/a

= (0.223 x 1.0 x 8.314 x 311){(25.5/23.9)0.2908 − 1)}/0.2908 = 37.7 kW

using a compressor efficiency of 75%

Wactual = (37.7)/(0.75) = 50.3 kW

→ This checks with the shaft power requirement given in Table 2.

 Heuristics for Towers (Distillation and Gas Absorption)

1. Distillation is usually the most economical method for separating liquids, superior to
extraction, absorption crystallization, or others.

2. For ideal mixtures, relative volatility is the ratio of vapor pressures α12= P1*/P2*

3. Tower operating pressure is most often determined by the temperature of the condensing
media, 38–50°C (100–120 °F) if cooling water is used, or by the maximum allowable reboiler
temperature to avoid chemical decomposition/degradation.

4. Sequencing of columns for separating multicomponent mixtures:

a. Perform the easiest separation first, that is, the one least demanding of trays and reflux, and
leave the most difficult to the last.

b. When neither relative volatility nor feed composition varies widely, remove components one
by one as overhead products.
c. When the adjacent ordered components in the feed vary widely in relative volatility,
sequence the splits in order of decreasing volatility.

d. When the concentrations in the feed vary widely but the relative volatilities do not, remove
the components in order of decreasing concentration.

5. Economical optimum reflux ratio is in the range of 1.2 to 1.5 times the minimum reflux ratio,
Rmin.

6. The economically optimum number of theoretical trays is near twice the minimum value
Nmin.

7. The minimum number of trays is found with the Fenske-Underwood equation

Nmin = ln{[x/(1-x)]ovhd/[x/(1-x)]btms}/ln α.
8. Minimum reflux for binary or pseudo binary mixtures is given by the following when
separation is essentially complete (xD ≈ 1) and D/F is the ratio of overhead product to feed
rate:
RminD/F = 1/(α-1), when feed is at the bubble point

(Rmin + 1) D/F = α/(α-1), when feed is at the dew point

9. A safety factor of 10% of the number of trays calculated by the best means is advisable.

10. Reflux pumps are made at least 10% oversize.

11. The optimum value of the Kremser absorption factor A = (L/mV) is in the range of 1.25 to
2.0.

12. Reflux drums usually are horizontal, with a liquid holdup of 5 min half-full. A takeoff pot for
a second liquid phase, such as water in hydrocarbon systems, is sized for a linear velocity of
that phase of 1.3 m/s (0.5 ft/sec), minimum diameter is 0.4 m (16 in).
13. For towers about 0.9 m (3 ft) dia, add 1.2 m (4 ft) at the top for vapor disengagement, and
1.8 m (6 ft) at bottom for liquid level and reboiler return.

14. Limit the tower height to about 53 m (175 ft) max. because of wind load and foundation
considerations. An additional criterion is that L/D be less than 30 (20 < L/D < 30 often will
require special design).
 Heuristics for Tray Towers (Distillation and Gas Absorption)
1. For reasons of accessibility, tray spacings are made 0.5–0.6 m (20–24 in).
2. Peak efficiency of trays is at values of the vapor factor F s = uρ0.5 in the range of 1.2–1.5 m/s
{kg/m3}0.5 [1–1.2 ft/s {lb/ft3}0.5]. This range of Fs establishes the diameter of the tower.
Roughly, linear velocities are 0.6 m/s (2 ft/sec) at moderate pressures, and 1.8 m/s (6 ft/sec) in
vacuum.
3. Pressure drop per tray is on the order of 7.6 cm (3 in) of water or 0.007 bar (0.1 psi).
4. Tray efficiencies for distillation of light hydrocarbons and aqueous solutions are 60–90%; for
gas absorption and stripping, 10–20%.
5. Sieve trays have holes 0.6–0.7 cm (0.25–0.5 in) dia., area being 10% of the active cross
section.
6. Valve trays have holes 3.8 cm (1.5 in) dia. each provided with a liftable cap, 130–150 caps/m2
(12–14 caps/ft2) of active cross section. Valve trays are usually cheaper than sieve trays.
7. Bubblecap trays are used only when a liquid level must be maintained at low turndown ratio;
they can be designed for lower pressure drop than either sieve or valve trays.
8. Weir heights are 5 cm (2 in), weir lengths are about 75% of tray diameter, liquid rate—a
maximum of 1.2 m3/min m of weir (8 gpm/in of weir); multipass arrangements are used at
higher liquid rates.
 Heuristics for Packed Towers (Distillation and Gas Absorption)

1. Structured and random packings are suitable for packed towers less than 0.9 m (3 ft) when
low pressure drop is required.
2. Replacing trays with packing allows greater throughput and separation in existing tower shells.
3. For gas rates of 14.2 m3/min (500 ft3/min), use 2.5 cm (1 in) packing; for 56.6 m3/min (2000
ft3/min) or more, use 5 cm (2 in) packing.
4. Ratio of tower diameter to packing diameter should be >15:1.
5. Because of deformability, plastic packing is limited to 3–4 m (10–15 ft) and metal to 6.0–7.6 m
(20–25 ft) unsupported depth.
6. Liquid distributors are required every 5–10 tower diameters with pall rings, and at least every
6.5 m (20 ft) for other types of dumped packing.
7. Number of liquid distributors should be >32–55/m2 (3–5/ft2) in towers greater than 0.9 m (3 ft)
diameter, and more numerous in smaller columns.
8. Packed towers should operate near 70% of flooding (evaluated from Sherwood and Lobo
correlation).
9. Height equivalent to theoretical stage (HETS) for vapor-liquid contacting is 0.4–0.56 m (1.3–1.8
ft) for 2.5 cm (1 in) pall rings, and 0.76–0.9 m. (2.5–3.0 ft) for 5 cm (2 in) pall rings.
10. Generalized pressure drops Design Pressure Drops Design Pressure Drops
(cm of H2O/m of packing) (inches of H2O/ft of packing)

Absorbers and regenerators 2.1–3.3 0.25–0.40

(nonfoaming systems)

Absorbers and regenerators 0.8–2.1 0.10–0.25

Atmospheric/pressure stills 3.3–6.7 0.40–0.80

and fractionators

Vacuum stills and fractionators 0.8–3.3 0.10–0.40

Maximum value 8.33 1.0

e. T-101

We use the following heuristics:

Rule 5: Optimum reflux in the range of 1.2–1.5 Rmin

Rule 6: Optimum number of stages approximately 2Nmin

Rule 7: Nmin = ln{ [x/(1 − x)]ovhd/[x/(1 − x)]bot}/ln α

Rule 8: Rmin = {F/D}/(α − 1)

Rule 9: Use a safety factor of 10% on number of trays.

Rule 14: Lmax = 53 m and L/D < 30

We use the following heuristics for tray towers:

Rule 2: FS = uρv0.5 = 1.2 → 1.5 m/s(kg/m3)0.5

Rule 3: ΔPtray = 0.007 bar

Rule 4: εtray = 60 – 90 %
Stream 15: Overhead product (Benzene),
T= 38 °C = 311 K, P= 2.3 bar = 2.27 atm

xovhd for Benzene = 105.2/(105.2+0.4) = 0.9962,

xovhd for toluene = 1- 0.9962 = 0.0038

Stream 11: Bottom Product (Toluene), T= 147 °C = 420 K, P=2.8 bar

xbot = 1.1/(1.1+34.6) = 0.0308,

Table 1:
 αovhd = 2.44, αbot = 2.13,

αgeom ave = (αovhdαbot)0.5 = (2.44 x 2.13)0.5 = 2.28

Nmin = ln{ [0.9962/(1 − 0.9962)]/[0.0308/(1 - 0.0308)]} /ln (2.28) = 10.9

Rmin = {F/D}/(α − 1) = (142.2/105.6)/(2.28-1) =1.05

Range of R = 1.2  1.5 Rmin

R = 1.26  1.58

Ntheoretical = 2x 10.9 = 21.8 εtray = 0.6 Nactual = (21.8/0.6) x 1.1 = 40 trays

Vapor density ρV = 6.1 kg/m3
FS = uρv0.5 = 1.2 → 1.5 m/s
u = (1.2  1.5)/6.10.5
u = 0.49  0.6 m/s
Vapor Flow rate (stream 13) = 22,700 kg/h
Volumetric Flow rate = 22,700/(6.1 x 3600) m3/s = 1.03 m3/s

Diameter of Tower = {4 x Vol. Flow rate/π x u}0.5

Diameter of Tower = {(4 x 1.03)/(π x (0.49  0.6)}0.5 =1.64 -1.48 m

ΔP = (Nactual x ΔPtray ) = 40 x 0.007 = 0.28 bar

A comparison of the actual equipment design and the predictions of the heuristic methods
are given below

From Table 1, 2 and figure From Heuristics

Tower diameter 1.5 m 1.48  1.64
Reflux Ratio R 1.75 1.26  1.58
No. Of Trays 42 40
Pressure Drop ΔP 0.30 bar 0.28 bar

13. Fired heaters: radiant rate, 37.6 kW/m2 (12,000 Btu/ hr sqft); convection rate, 12.5
kW/m2 (4000 Btu/hr ft2); cold oil tube velocity, 1.8 m/s (6 ft/sec); approx equal transfers
of heat in the two sections; thermal efficiency 70-90%; flue gas temperature 140-195 °C
(250-350°F) above feed inlet; stack gas temperature 345–510°C (650-950°F).
f. H-101

Rule 13: Equal heat transfer in radiant and convective sections

Radiant rate = 37.6 kW/m2, Convective rate = 12.5 kW/m2

Duty = 27,040 MJ/h = 7511 kW

Area radiant section = 0.5 x 7511 / 37.6 = 99.9 m2

Area convective section = 0.5 x 7511 / 12.5 = 300.4 m2