Unit 4 (Part I)

Sampling
A Photographic Example of how Sampling Works
Sampling
 A sample is “a smaller but representative collection of units from a
population used to determine truths about that population”

 Why sample?
• Resources (time, money) and workload
• Gives results with known accuracy that can be calculated mathematically

 The sampling frame is the list from which the potential respondents are
drawn
• Registrar’s office
• Class register
Sampling

 What is your population of interest?

 To whom do you want to generalize your results?

• All doctors
• School children
• Indians
• Women aged 15-45 years
• Other

 Can you sample the entire population?

Sampling

 3 factors that influence sample representative-ness

 Sampling procedure
 Sample size
 Participation (response)

 When might you sample the entire population?

 When your population is very small
 When you have extensive resources
 When you don’t expect a very high response
Technical Terminology

 An element is an object on which a measurement is taken.

 A population is a collection of elements about which we wish to

make an inference.

 Sampling units are non-overlapping collection of elements from

the population that cover the entire sample.
Technical Terms

 A sampling frame is the list from which the potential respondents

are drawn

 A sample is a collection of sampling units drawn from a sampling

frame.

 Parameter: numerical characteristic of a population

 Statistic: numerical characteristic of a sample

Stages in the Selection
of a Sample
Random Sampling and Non-sampling Errors

 Random Sampling Error

 A statistical fluctuation that occurs because of chance variations in the
elements selected for a sample.

 Systematic Sampling Error

 Systematic (non-sampling) error results from non-sampling factors, primarily
the nature of a study’s design and the correctness of execution.
 It is not due to chance fluctuation.
Errors Associated with Sampling
Types of Samples

 Probability (Random) Samples: each member of the population

has a known non-zero probability of being selected

 Methods include simple random sampling, systematic sampling and stratified

sampling.

 Nonprobability Samples: members are selected from the

population in some nonrandom manner

 Methods include convenience sampling, judgment sampling, quota sampling

and snowball sampling
Simple Random Sampling
• Applicable when population is small, homogeneous & readily available
• All subsets of the frame are given an equal probability. Each element of the
frame thus has an equal probability of selection
• It provides for greatest number of possible samples. This is done by
assigning a number to each unit in the sampling frame.
• A table of random number or lottery system is used to determine which
units are to be selected.

Disadvantages

• If sampling frame large, this method impracticable.

• Minority subgroups of interest in population may not be present in sample
in sufficient numbers for study.
Simple Random Sampling
Systematic Sampling
• Systematic sampling is often used instead of random sampling. It is also called
an Nth name selection technique.

• After the required sample size has been calculated, every Nth record is selected
from a list of population members.

• As long as the list does not contain any hidden order, this sampling method is as
good as the random sampling method.

• Its only advantage over the random sampling technique is simplicity (and
possibly cost effectiveness).

• A simple example would be to select every 10th name from the telephone
directory.
Systematic sampling
Systematic Sampling
• ADVANTAGES:
• Sample easy to select
• Suitable sampling frame can be identified easily
• Sample evenly spread over entire reference population

• DISADVANTAGES:
• Sample may be biased if hidden periodicity in population coincides with that of
selection.
• Difficult to assess precision of estimate from one survey.
Stratified Sampling
• Stratified sampling is commonly used probability method that is superior to
random sampling because it reduces sampling error.

• A stratum is a subset of the population that share at least one common

characteristic; such as males and females.

• Identify relevant stratums and their actual representation in the population.

• Random sampling is then used to select a sufficient number of subjects from each
stratum.

• Stratified sampling is often used when one or more of the stratums in the
population have a low incidence relative to the other stratums.
Stratified Sampling

Draw a sample from each stratum

Proportional versus Disproportional Stratified Sampling

 Proportional Stratified Sample

 The number of sampling units drawn from each stratum is in proportion to the
population size of that stratum.

 Disproportional Stratified Sample

 The sample size for each stratum is allocated according to analytical
considerations.
 For example, a stratum could be large supermarkets, which may only account for 20% of
all grocery stores – although they account for 60% of grocery sales. In this case, a
disproportionate sample would be used to represent the large supermarkets to reflect their
sales (i.e. 60%) rather than the number of stores.
Disproportional Sampling: Hypothetical Example
Cluster Sampling

 A probability sample in which each sampling unit is a collection of elements

 Used when mutually homogeneous yet internally heterogeneous groupings are

evident in a statistical population

 often used in marketing research

 Effective under the following conditions:

• A good sampling frame is not available or costly, while a frame listing clusters is easily obtained

• The cost of obtaining observations increases as the distance separating the elements increases

 Examples of clusters:
 area sampling or geographical cluster sampling
 Cluster Sampling
Section 1 Section 2

Section 3

Section 5

Section 4
Examples of Clusters
Difference Between Strata and Clusters

 Although strata and clusters are both non-overlapping subsets of the

population, they differ in several ways.

 All strata are represented in the sample; but only a subset of clusters are in
the sample.

 With stratified sampling, the best survey results occur when elements within
strata are internally homogeneous. However, with cluster sampling, the best
results occur when elements within clusters are internally heterogeneous
Convenience Sampling

 Convenience sampling is used in exploratory research where the

researcher is interested in getting an inexpensive approximation.

 The sample is selected because they are convenient.

 It is a nonprobability method.

 Often used during preliminary research efforts to get an estimate

without incurring the cost or time required to select a random
sample
Judgment Sampling

 Judgment sampling is a common nonprobability method

 The sample is selected based upon judgment

 An extension of convenience sampling

 While using this method, the researcher must be confident that the
chosen sample is truly representative of the entire population
 Quota Sampling

 Quota sampling is the nonprobability equivalent of stratified sampling

 The researcher ensures that certain characteristics of a population are represented

in the sample to an extent which is he or she desires

 First identify the stratums and their proportions as they are represented in the
population

 Then convenience or judgment sampling is used to select the required number of

subjects from each stratum.
Snowball Sampling
 Snowball sampling is a special nonprobability method used when the
desired sample characteristic is rare.

 It may be extremely difficult or cost prohibitive to locate respondents

in these situations.

 This technique relies on referrals from initial subjects to generate

additional subjects.

 It lowers search costs; however, it introduces bias because the

technique itself reduces the likelihood that the sample will represent a
good cross section from the population.

For e.g. Market research for mahogany croquet set

Snowball Sampling
 What is the Appropriate Sample Design?

Degree of
Accuracy

National vs. Local Resources

Appropriate
Sample
Design

Knowledge of
Time
Population
Comparison of Sampling Techniques:
Nonprobability Samples
Comparison of Sampling Techniques:
Probability Samples
Choice points in a Sample Design