Chapter Two

Understanding Foreign Policy

and Diplomacy
 Defining National Interest

 National interest refers to set of values, orientation,

goals and objectives a given country would like to
achieve in its international relations.
It has been the main driving force that determines the contents
of foreign policy.
National interest is something related to the ambition of
governments, viz., what governments aspire to fulfill in its
future interaction with others
 Power to influence the behaviors of other state is the
primary instrument to implement national interest.
 Defining … cont’d

 However, there is no universally accepted definition of

national interest
 There are a multiplicity of criteria used in defining

national interest, including

 Operational philosophy, moral and legal criteria, pragmatic
criteria, ideological criteria, professional advancement,
partisan criteria, bureaucratic-interest criteria, ethnic/racial
criteria, class-status criteria and foreign –dependency criteria.
 Understanding Foreign Policy and Foreign
Policy Behaviors
 Foreign policy refers to the sets of objectives and
instruments that a state adopts to guide its relation with
the outside world
It also encompasses specific strategies and instruments,
economic and diplomatic tools that states employ to achieve
their objectives
The objectives of foreign policy which a state wants to achieve
are related to national interest
 So, national interest is often considered as the objectives of
foreign policy of a state.
And these objectives can be classified as long range, middle
range and short range.
 Understanding Foreign Policy… Cont’d

 These objectives, visions and goals state aspire to achieve

is commonly referred as national interest.
 Morgenthau suggests that the minimum goal a state would

like to achieve is survival.

Every state should protect their physical identity
(maintenance of the territorial integrity of a state), political
identity (the preservation of existing politico-economic
systems), and cultural identity (ethnic, religious, and linguistic
and historical norms of the peoples residing in the state)
against any encroachment by other states.
 Understanding Foreign Policy… Cont’d

 Foreign policy also involves specific instruments and

tactics that must be employed to realize those
objectives and goals.
 The most widely employed instruments include, diplomatic
bargaining, economic instruments, propaganda, terrorism
(sabotage), and use of force (war)
 Securityand survival of a state, as explained above, has
always been considered as the first priority, among
various foreign policy objectives, which a state aspires
to achieve in the short run.
 Understanding Foreign Policy… Cont’d

 In this regard, K. J. Holisti categorizes the foreign

policy objectives of states into three, namely
A. The short range,
B. Middle ranges and
C. Long range objectives
 Foreign Policy Objectives
 The foreign policy objectives can be classified as:
(1) Core values and interests
(2) Middle range goals, and
(3) Universal long range goals-which seldom have definite time
limits.
 1. Core Interests and Values (Short Range
Objectives)
 Are basic principles and goals of foreign policy that society
accepts without any question and willing to make ultimate
sacrifices.
 The most essential core interests and values, is to ensure

the sovereignty and independence of the home territory

 Conquering the of neighboring countries might be

considered as the core interests of states

 This is because these area contain asset such as man power

and resources that can increase the capabilities, or because

they believe that the major threat for their territorial
integrity might materialize through adjacent countries
 Core Interests … Cont’d

 Countries such as Israel and the United States pursue

such policies called extra-territoriality
 States may think that their national interest is at risk when the
interests and security of citizens living in the neighboring states
and other states are threatened.
 So, liberating or protecting the interests of such individuals and
groups might be considered as part of its core national interest.
 2. Middle Range Objectives
 The bottom point that a state would like to achieve in
its medium term is to take a course of actions that have
the highest impact on the domestic economic and
welfare needs and expectation
To satisfy domestic needs and aspirations, states would have to
interact with others
Trade, foreign aid, access to communication facilities, sources
of supply, and foreign market are for most states necessary for
increasing social welfare.
 3. Long- Range Objectives

 Such long range visions and dreams may have

international consequences as far as they are
complemented by the capabilities and powers
This, however, doesn’t necessarily imply that states
that are less capable, often those middle powers and
less developing countries, does not formulate long
range objective.
 Every country has its own visions and ambition
proportional to its relative strength and capabilities
to be realized in the long run.
 Foreign Policy Behavior: Patterns and Trends
 Foreign policy behavior refers to the actions states take
towards each other.
 patterns of foreign policy behavior can be identified.
 Arnold Wolfers, a famous specialist in the field of IR,

suggested that all foreign policy behavior ultimately boils

down to three possible patterns:
1. Self-preservation (maintaining the status quo);
2. Self-extension (revising the status quo in one’s own favor);
3. Self-abnegation (revising the status quo in some else’s favor).
Foreign Policy Behavior: Patterns and Trends

 The foreign policy patterns of countries such as United

States can be categorized as self-preservation.
 One can say that the international institutions (IMF,

World Bank, WTO) that were established following

Second World War have been strongly shaped by
United States.
 The decision making procedures of such institutions

including the UN are all shaped to serve the global

interests of this country.
Foreign Policy Behavior: Patterns and Trends

 On the other hand newly emerging powers such as China,

India, Brazil, Germany and others are competing to restructure
the international institutions and different regimes to promote
their national interest.
 Such policy trend is self-extension.
 The third model, i.e. self-abnegation reflects the foreign policy
trends that are being displayed in Less Developing Countries.
 These countries usually fail to defend and promote their

national interests in their external relations since they are

dependent on foreign aid
 Such countries may compromise its long lasting national

interest for temporary and immediate benefits

 Foreign Policy Dimensions
 The dimensions of foreign policy include
A. alignment,
B. scope and
C. modus operandi.
A. Alignment
 One can identify the alignment tendencies such as

alliance, neutrality and non-alignment.

 Alliances are formal agreements to provide mutual

military assistance
 Foreign Policy Dimensions
 Neutrality is a stance of formal non partisanship in
world affairs.
 Nonalignment has been the foreign policy pattern of

most developing state during cold war.

 Most developing countries had a movement-Non

Alignment Movement (NAM) in which they called for

a new foreign policy path/choice/ to be followed
disregarding the both the West and East bloc politics
and alliances.
 Although that was practically impossible, NAM had

noble agenda that called for the South-south

cooperation
 Foreign Policy Dimensions

B. Scope
 A second foreign policy dimension is the scope of a

country’s activities and interests

 Some countries have extensive, far-reaching international

contacts, while other countries have more limited activities

abroad
 A country’s scope of contact can affect the outcome of

disputes and crises

 With regards to the scope of activities a state has in

international relations, one can identify at least three

patterns of foreign policy behaviors, Some actors act in
Global terms, others as Regional terms, and those that
follow policy of Isolationism.
 Foreign Policy Dimensions

 Most countries in the world are essentially regional actors, interacting

primarily with neighboring states in the same geographical area except
for contacts, frequently concerning economic issues such as trade; with
major actors like United States and China outside their region.
 For example, South Africa is a regional actor in Africa in general and in Southern
Africa in Particular.
 India can also be considered as the most important actor in South Asian region,
so is China in entire Asia.
 Isolationism becomes an increasingly less viable foreign policy
orientation.
 Some of the known global actors such as United States of America,
China, and the ex-USSR all have passed through period of relative
isolationism and of mainly regional interests, finally branching out
in to global concerns
 Foreign Policy Dimensions

C. Mode of Operation/ “Modus Opernadi’

 In addition to the alignment and scope dimensions of

a country’s foreign policy, we can also identify

certain patterns of foreign policy behaviors on the
basis of the modus operandi-the method of operation.
Some countries often rely on multilateral institutions to
address different issues.
Still others very much rely on unilateral means.
They may choose to solve the problems by themselves.
 Foreign Policy Dimensions

 The more multilateralist a state is, the greater its

tendency to seek solutions to problems through
diplomatic forums in which several states participate,
such as the United Nations, rather than utilizing purely
bilateral, country to country approaches
 Most developing countries used the multilateral

approaches to address many issues of concern.

 Instruments of Foreign Policy

 These instruments are divided into three: political

(diplomacy and alliance formation), economic and military
instruments
1. Diplomacy
 Diplomacy is an art of conducting IR between actors (diplomats,
usually representing a state) and engage in private and public
dialogue (diplomacy) to pursue their objectives in a peaceful manner.
 Diplomacy is not foreign policy and must be distinguished from it.
 The nature of diplomacy and its strategy has been radically
changed from the old practices since WWI and formation of
the League of Nations
 Instruments of Foreign Policy
 There arose multilateral (alliances of many countries to
achieve the same goal) diplomacy, public or people to people
diplomacy, leader-to-leader (summitry diplomacy) in sharp
contrast to secret diplomacy and bilateral diplomacy.
 Regardless of whether diplomacy is conducted openly or

secretly, multilaterally or bilaterally, implicitly or formally,

by ambassadors or leader-to-leader, the essence of diplomacy
remains bargaining.
 Bargaining can be defined as a means of settling differences over
priorities between contestants through an exchange of proposals to
reach agreements, compromises, and settlements where governments
objectives conflict.
 Instruments of Foreign Policy

 It involves the attempt to change the policies, actions,

attitudes and objectives of other government and their
diplomats by persuasion, offering rewards, exchange
concessions, or making threats.
 The international law that governs diplomacy is the

Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations of 1961

It indicates that only states are diplomatic actors.
Yet, the modern international system also involves powerful
actors that are not states such as INGOs and IGOs
 Rules of Effective Diplomacy
 The following are some of the basic rules that
diplomats have employed with greater effectiveness
over the years:
A. Be realistic: It is important to have goals that much your ability
to achieve them
B. Be careful about what you say: use words carefully.
C. Understand the other side: There are several aspects to
understanding the other side. One is to appreciate an opponent’s
perspective even if you do not agree with it.
D. Be patient: it is also important to bide your time. Being overly
anxious can lead to concessions that are unwise and may convey
weakness to an opponent.
 Rules of Effective Diplomacy

2. Economic Instruments of Foreign Policy

Holisti states that economic instruments are used for three
purposes, namely:
1. To achieve any foreign policy objective by exploiting need and
dependence and offering economic rewards, or threat, ending or
imposing economic punishments;
2. To increase a state’s capability or deprive a potential enemy’s
capabilities ;and
3. To create economic satellites (guaranteed markets and resources
of supply)
 To serve the above objectives, states often employ
different techniques of economic reward and punishment.
 Rules of Effective Diplomacy

 The specific techniques that can be used to reward or punish

constitute various control over the flow of goods between
countries including, tariffs, quotas, boycotts, and embargos.
 Loans, credits, and currency manipulation can be used for

reward as well.
A. Tariff: foreign made products coming into a country are taxed for the
purpose of raising revenue, protecting domestic producers from
foreign competition
 The tariff structure can be used effectively as an incentive or
punishment when a country stands to gain or lose important
markets for its products by increasing or decreasing the
amount of tarrif.
 Rules of Effective Diplomacy
B. Quota:
 Under such arrangement, the supplier usually sends his

goods into the country at a favorable price, but is

allowed to sell only a certain amount in a given time
period.
C. Boycott:
 A trade boycott organized by a government eliminates

the import of either a specific commodity or the total

range of export products sold by the country against
which the boycott is organized.
 Rules of Effective Diplomacy
D. Embargo:
 A government that seeks to deprive another country of goods

prohibits its own business men from concluding its

transactions with commercial organization in the country
against which the embargo is organized.
 An embargo may be enforced either on specific category of

goods, such as strategic materials, or on the total range of

goods that private businessmen normally send to the country
being punished
E. Foreign Aid:
 The transfer of money, goods, or technical advice from donor

to recipient-is an instrument of foreign policy

 Rules of Effective Diplomacy

F. Military Aid:
 Rich countries spend millions of dollars to strengthen

their continental friendship/ alliance.

 In this aid scheme, the donors supply money and material,

while the recipient provide most of the man power.

 The objective is to safeguard own security by
strengthening the military capabilities of allies.
 By helping recipients build up modern forces, the donors

hope to obtain some immediate political or security

objective.
 Rules of Effective Diplomacy
 Most aid programs are obviously not undertaken solely for
humanitarian purpose
 in the long run, it is designed to help secure certain of the

donors` political objectives, which it cannot achieve solely

through diplomacy, propaganda, or military policies.
 The aim is to change the domestic or foreign policies of the

recipient countries.
 A government can be rewarded through increased aid

allotments if it promises, for example, political and economic

reforms (like adopting liberal democracy and deregulations of
public enterprises); or it can be threatened with the reduction
in aid if the reforms are not carried out.
 Overview of Foreign Policy of Ethiopia

Foreign Policy during Tewodros II (1855-1868)

 The process of modern state was began in 1855 by

Tewodros
 Tewodros wanted to create a united Ethiopia

 He introduced the idea of modernity and modern army

 Throughout his reign Tewodros tried to develop a dynamic

foreign policy that reached out beyond the Horn Region.

 He sought the Western Christian world to recognize his

country and help him to modernize his country.

 He appealed specifically to Britain, France and Russia as

Christian nations to assist him in whatever ways possible in

his fight against the Turks, Egyptians and Islam.
Overview of Foreign Policy of Ethiopia
 The emperor attempted to establish his diplomatic relations to
fight his immediate enemies claiming Christianity as instrument
of foreign policy.
 However, the emperor demand modern technology and skilled
man power, Britain sent religious missionaries.
 Despite his demand to be recognized as the emperor of Ethiopia
and treated with respect and equal footing with the British Queen
that was not reciprocated by Queen Victoria.
 Consequently Tewodros took desperate measures by taking
hostage of several British missionaries which was responded
with the British Military Expedition.
 Tewodros’s Troops were easily defeated and the King did not
surrender but tragically committed suicide
 Overview of Foreign Policy of Ethiopia

Foreign Policy during Yohannes IV (1872-1889)

 Like his predecessor, Yohannes considered Islam as a

threat to the territorial integrity of the polity.

 Indeed Egypt tried to put a serious security threat in its

continued attempt to invade the country under many

pretexts, yet its motive was to control the source of
Blue Nile.
 These, however, were not successful as Egypt faced

subsequent defeat both in 1875 and 1876 at the Battle

of Gundet and Gura respectively.
 Overview of Foreign Policy of Ethiopia

 In addition to Muslim threat, the emperor saw

European expansionism as threat to the survival of the
country.
 The emperor died fighting with the “Mahadists”.
 The Sudanese resistance groups against British rule

happened to invade Western Ethiopia because of their

presumption that Yohannes IV was collaborating with
the British.
 Overview of Foreign Policy of Ethiopia

Foreign Policy during Menelik II (1889-93)

 Menelik was the King of Shoa region before his

coronation as the King of Kings of Ethiopia

 He had expanded his sphere of influence towards the

far South and East incorporating new areas and

communities peacefully or otherwise
 The southward expansionism policy of the King was

mainly targeted to have access to Sea Port, Zeila

 Overview of Foreign Policy of Ethiopia

 Before the death of Yohannes Italy had good diplomatic

relation with Menelik with the objective of weakening its
immediate enemy in the North, Yohannes.
 Following the death of Yohannes, however, Italy continued

to be the main challenge in the North.

 Moreover, the King saw the other colonial powers

surrounding all four corners of the country as the scramble

of Africa was heightened.
 Italy expanded towards the hinterland of Ethiopia from its

first hold of Bogess, later named Eritrea, and Missawa port

crossing Tekeze river.
 Overview of Foreign Policy of Ethiopia

 The emperor entered many treaties and agreements to solve the

challenge amicably
 One of the remarkable treaties was the ‘Wuchalle’ friendship
and peace treaty where the parties agreed to avoid war and solve
the problem peacefully
 On the other hand the emperor was preparing himself by
accumulating military ammunitions to defend the aggression
from any side of colonial powers, British, French and of course
Italy
 However, the emperor’s diplomatic endeavor with Italy failed to
result in peace due to Italy’s misinterpretation of the
controversial article 17 of the ‘Wuchalle treaty
 Overview of Foreign Policy of Ethiopia

 The treaty was signed between Menilik and Pietro

Antonelli, in 1889
 In Amharic version of the treaty, the government of
Ethiopia can use the government of Italy to have business
relations with other European governments.
 The Italian version, however, stated that Ethiopia was
obligated to conduct all its foreign relations through Italian
authorities, which then led to the abrogation of the
‘Wuchale’ treaty by Ethiopia in 1893.
 As a result, Italy prepared for war and started its systematic
penetration of the country from the north
 Overview of Foreign Policy of Ethiopia

 In 1896, the emperor declared nation-wide war against

Italy
 After a severe battle, Ethiopian forces defeated Italy at the
battle of Adowa.
 The significance of the Adowa victory is loud and clear as
many European powers recognized Ethiopia as an
independent African state on similar footing with the
Europeans.
 Britain, France, Russia and Italy came to Menelik’s Palace
to arrange formal exchange of Ambassadors after the Battle
of Adowa
 Overview of Foreign Policy of Ethiopia

Foreign Policy during Emperor Haile Selassie I (1916-1974)

 Haile Selassie I, assumed the throne in 1930
 He was dedicated to the creation of a stronger, and

centralized empire
 Ethiopia’s membership in the League of Nations in 1923
 When the Italian Fascists finally invade Ethiopia between
1936 and 1941, the Emperor fled to London and established
a government in exile.
 He appealed to the League of Nations for aid in defense to

the country but the League failed to take any substantive

measure against Italy
 Overview of Foreign Policy of Ethiopia

 His diplomatic skills and Britain’s own strategic

necessities in the area enabled him to elicit the aid of
the British in securing the liberation of Ethiopia.
 In the immediate post-war period, Ethiopia was

extremely dependent on British military, economic and

technical aid.
 British Military Aid was withdrawn in 1952, and the

King moved quickly to firm up relations with the

United States
 Overview of Foreign Policy of Ethiopia

 Agreements were concluded in 1953 to formulize this

new relationship.
 As a result, the United States guaranteed Ethiopia’s

security
 Ethiopia received military aid and military training

from the United States over the next 23 years

 The military aid was decisive for the Emperor to ensure

his survival at home and maintain the territorial

integrity of the country.
 He effectively used military action against those riots

and rebellions both in rural and urban places

 Overview of Foreign Policy of Ethiopia

 On more consistent basis, the United States contributed to

the expansion of Ethiopian military as a hedge a against
the Somalia threats and to suppress Eritrean Nationalism.
 The establishment of the organization of African Unity in

the capital of Ethiopia witnessed the prominent role of the

emperor in African affairs
 Ethiopia also played a significant role in maintaining

international peace and security by committing its troops

for peacekeeping operations in Korea in 1951 and the
Congo in 1961.
 Overview of Foreign Policy of Ethiopia

 Of course the emperor’s strategic alliance with outside

powers helped him to stay on power for decades.
 In this regard British military aid and assistance helped

him to restore and consolidate his power again by

eliminating his potential rivals at home.
 he distanced potential rivals first with help from the

British and later on with the help of USA military and

technical assistance.
 Overview of Foreign Policy of Ethiopia

Foreign Policy during the Military Government (1974—1991)

 The military regime adopted a foreign policy oriented to

socialist ideology.
 The primary objectives of the foreign policy were survival

of the regime and maintaining the territorial integrity of the

country.
 The major strategy to achieve the stated objectives focused

on building the military capability of the country.

 And force had been employed as the best strategy to silence

dissent at home and deter the perceived external enemies of

the country.
 Overview of Foreign Policy of Ethiopia

 The country was heavily dependent on military aid on the

Soviet Union which prevented it from securing any kind of
military and technical assistance from the US and other
European countries
 The regime was condemned by the west for its human rights
record, especially its treatment of former government officials
 This resulted in declining Ethio-US relations marking its
lowest point with the closure of the US military base and
operation of military assistance
 Following such problems, internal and external enemies began
to take action to hasten the demise of the regime
 Overview of Foreign Policy of Ethiopia

 Internally Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) launched military

attack on the Ethiopian Army.
 Many external actors were involved in sponsoring the rebel
group, including; Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Sudan, Somalia and
later USA itself.
 Moreover, Somalia’s invasion of the Ethiopian region of
Ogaden was one of the serious external challenges of the
Ethiopian Government at the time.
 The regime managed to reverse the Somali aggression with the
help of the new powerful patron, USSR.
 The Soviet Union and its allies were thus able to exert immense
influence in both domestic and foreign affairs of Ethiopia
 Overview of Foreign Policy of Ethiopia
 Experts from the German Democratic Republic assisted
the military regime in its struggle against domestic
guerilla movements and external opponents, and in
training cadres for the completely reorganized security
services
 The Dergue had sent hundreds of Ethiopians for

training to the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe and Cuba

while employing many of their administrators and
technicians.
 Overview of Foreign Policy of Ethiopia

 Apart from socialism, Ethiopia’s strategic locations and

other questions, such as; Eritrea, Somalia, and the issue
of the Nile, had also shaped the foreign policy
orientation and behavior of military government.
 Ethiopia being located in the Horn of Africa is at the

cross roads to the oil rich middle East region and

Indian Ocean.
 As a result of this the U.S.S.R was keen to have

stronghold over the area, replacing the United States.

 Overview of Foreign Policy of Ethiopia

The Foreign Policy of Ethiopia in the Post 1991

 In the post 1991, one of the goals of the foreign policy

is to ensure the survival of the multi- national state.

 National interest of the country is understood in terms

of realizing democracy and development.

 In this regard, foreign policy has been considered as an

instrument to solve the domestic problems of the

country, including; lack of good governance, instability
and lack of economic development.
 So democracy and development are the foreign policy

visions of the country

 Overview of Foreign Policy of Ethiopia

 The primary strategy in realization of these goals is to put

the focus on domestic issues first.
◦ Addressing domestic political and economic problems requires
forging national consensus about the problems and exit strategies.
 Emphasizing on external issues such as; seeking financial
aid, loans or technical issues would subject the country to
dependency and vulnerability.
◦ This strategy is called an “inside-out” approach.
 If we solve our domestic problems the country would not
be vulnerable and its peace and survival can be ensured.
 Overview of Foreign Policy of Ethiopia

 At diplomatic level, economic diplomacy is adopted to

strengthen the domestic efforts in fighting poverty and
backwardness
 Economic diplomacy involves attracting foreign
investments, seeking markets for Ethiopian exportable
commodities, seeking aid and concessional loans too.
 The Security and Foreign Policy of the country also

indicated that Ethiopia would adopt a kind of East-look

policy.
 Ethiopia appreciates the East Asian countries economic successes
and development paths.
 The country would like to learn from such successful countries
such as Singapore, Malaysian and Indonesia.
 Overview of Foreign Policy of Ethiopia
 The other foreign policy strategy is building up the
military capability of the country.
 Peaceful dialogues and negotiations will be employed to

peacefully coexist with others.

 Diplomatic solutions can always be taken prior attention

when dealing even disputes.

 But above all building up military capability would have a

deterrence effect.
 Looking at the patterns of the country’s foreign policies

over the years, there have been changes and continuities

in the foreign policy goals and tactics adopted by different
governments of Ethiopia.
 Overview of Foreign Policy of Ethiopia

 Though strategies may sometimes differ the primary

foreign policy objective of all the three regimes
remained the maintenance of the territorial integrity
and independence of the country
 To this end the three regimes used a combination of

both military force and diplomacy to address both

internal and external challenges depending on the
circumstances
 In this manner, while the imperial and the military

regime’s foreign policy strategy is largely an approach

the current regime followed “in-side out” approach
End of Chapter Two!