Motor Performance

Motor performance is the external and therefore observable attempt by an

individual to produce a voluntary action that is susceptible to influences such as
motivation, attentional focus, fatigue, and physical condition (Schmidt & Wrisberg,
2008). Motor performance is the external manifestation of an athlete's internal
process for motor learning. An athlete can't learn a motor task without
performance attempts or practice. The performance may vary due to influencing
factors, but through practice the athlete's capabilities for producing the action
improve. This improvement is assumed to be motor learning. Motor learning is
certainly occurring when relatively stable repetitions of proficient performance
occur, especially if they occur under different sets of circumstances (Schmidt &
Wrisberg, 2008).
 What is Coaching

THREE COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS

Eggen and Kauchak (2008) cite three common misconceptions about teach- ing and
learning to teach that apply to coaches, too.

1. Coaching is the process of transmitting knowledge to athletes.

Some aspiring coaches erroneously believe that coaching is simply the process
of telling athletes what to do. These coaches perceive themselves as the all-
knowing dispensers of information.
For example, in the games approach that Martens (2004) outlines, athletes discover
through experience what the game is all about, what to do, and what they need to
learn.
 What is Coaching

THREE COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS

2. Playing the sport provides all the knowledge needed to coach the
sport.
Some coaches believe that if they were athletes in a particular sport then they are
knowledgeable enough to coach the sport. This misconception is pervasive both in
the classroom and on the practice field. It is ironic that the best athletes do not
always make the best coaches. As Leonard (1992) writes, "John McEnroe might
turn up in later years as a superb tennis coach-but he might not. The teaching
tactics of a Nobel laureate could turn out to be poison for the mind of a neophyte
physicist. It's particularly challenging, in fact, for a top performer to becomea first-
rate teacher. Instruction demands a certain humility; at best, the teacher takes
delight in being surpassed by his or her students"
 What is Coaching

THREE COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS

3. To learn to coach, experience in the practice setting is all that is
necessary.
Some coaches also mistakenly believe that if they were in a practice setting as
athletes, then that is all that is necessary for them to be effective coaches. Or, if
they have observed other coaches, that is sufficient for learning how to coach. As
Eggen and Kauchak (2008) point out, there are two problems with not having direct
teaching experience. One problem is that you won't always observe effective
teaching. The other problem is that you may not know what to look for when trying
to identify good teaching.
 Coaching as Decision Making
To a great extent, coaching is about decision making and you are the person in charge,
the captain steering the ship. You have the autonomy to make decisions that affect
you, your program, and your athletes. Every day you are called upon to make decisions
regarding a variety of different matters. Through your coaching experience you learn to
be an effective decision maker; when you continually make good decisions you provide
your program with stability and continuity and guide your athletes in the right
direction, making the crooked path straight, helping your athletes go from good to
great in the shortest amount of time possible.
A simple but useful paradigm for understanding decision making during the coaching
process is to consider before, during, and after coaching.
 Before Coaching
Before coaching is the decision-making process of deciding the who, what,
where, when, and how of coaching.

• Who-the individual athlete:

Before coaching, consider who you will be coaching and the individual
differences among athletes. These differences include age, ability level,
experience level, motivational level, emotional level, cognitive development,
social and personality development, physical matura- tion, moral
development, and level of attentional focus.
 Before Coaching
• What the tack:
Before coaching, consider what is to be taught. The what process means
identifying the demands of the task. According to Schmidt and Wrisberg
(2008) these task demands are accurate sensory perception, decision making,
and movement execution. For example, the racquetball player must perceive
the speed and direction of the ball coming off the wall, decide where to
return the ball, and be able to execute the correct racket swing.
 Before Coaching

• Where the target context:

Target context is the environment in which the motor skill is
going to be performed. It is one thing to drop a ball and hit a
backhand in practice but an entirely different thing to chase the ball
during a hotly contested racquetball game and hit a backhand.
 Before Coaching
• When the time of season:
Your decision making is affected by where you are at in your season.

For example, if it is early in the season, you may decide to change the
mechanics of your golfer's stroke but most likely decide to not attempt to
make any change late in the season heading into the champion-
ship. How the coaching strategy.
 Before Coaching
• The how has to do with the decisions you make to create an environment
conducive for motor learning and performance.

Part of this process is to use different coaching strategies outlined in this

book such as behavioral, cognitivist, and humanistic coaching strategies. The
how also has to do with selecting drills and presentation techniques such as
guidance, demonstrations, rehearsal, peer coaching, transfer of learning, and
direct instruction.
 During Coaching
Once you have done your preparatory decision making, it is time to
implement your coaching plan and strategies. During coaching, you
monitor athlete safety and maintain an ongoing assessment of the
effectiveness of your practice plan and strategies. Based on your
assessment during the coaching phase, you may decide to alter your
practice plan. Nothing is set in stone. If what you are doing isn't
working, then change course. During this time you also maintain
effective practice management and discipline so that you create and
maintain an atmosphere conducive for effective coaching and learning.
 After Coaching
After coaching you assess the effectiveness of practice. Did you reach your goals?
What worked well? What didn't? In other words, you reflect on whether or not goals
were attained, reevaluate athlete readiness, and begin preparing a practice plan for
your next coaching session.
• This stage of the instructional process is important because without reflective
evaluation, you may continue down the same instructional path even though it
does not lead to improved athlete performance. A good rule of thumb is if it
works, keep it; if it doesn't work, throw it out. Some of the things you want to
consider in your assessment are the products of practice: knowledge of
concepts, control and coordination, muscles being used, movement efficiency,
attention, and error detection and correction.
 Coaching as Reflection
In many ways, coaching is a reflective activity. Reflective teaching is the process of thinking about
teaching activities (Moallem, 1997). Reflective coaching involves thinking about the consequences
of your actions, the beliefs you hold that affect your behavior, and your coaching methods and
styles. It also is about acquiring new information and improving your coaching effectiveness (Eby,
1998).
Effective and successful coaches take the time to examine all aspects of their coaching life. They
reflect on things such as their well-being ("Am I growing as a person and a coach?"), reasons for
coaching ("Am I coaching for the right reasons?"), goals ("Am I moving away or toward my goals?
Am I helping my athletes reach their goals?"), dreams and aspirations ("Am I where I thought I
would be in my career?"), personal life ("Do I have balance in my life? Is my personal life positively
or negatively affecting my coaching effectiveness?"), and coaching methods ("Are the drills I'm
using effective or could I be using different drills? Is my approach in working with my athletes
effective or should I use a different approach?").
 Coaching as a Coaching

Coaching is about exhibiting effective coaching behaviors. In other

words, if you act like a successful coach, you more than likely will
become a successful coach. A benefit of coaching is that you learn
exemplary behaviors that make you an effective leader and worthy role
model. Effective coaching requires effective behaviors.
 Coaching Behaviour
After a review of research on effective teaching, MacKay (1982) identified 28 behaviors that
effective teachers exhibit while teaching. The following lists these behaviors translated from in-
class teaching behaviors to in-practice coaching behaviors.

• Use a system of rules dealing with personal and procedural issues. • Prevent inappropriate
behavior from continuing. • Direct disciplinary action accurately.
Frequently move around the practice area and monitor athlete on-task training behaviors.
. Handle disruptive behavior in a subtle manner. Make sure that drills and practice assignments are
interesting and worth- while, especially when young athletes work independently.

• Use a system of rules and guidelines that allow athletes to practice skills and drills with a
minimum of direction,

• Optimize practice time. Athletes should be actively involved and productively engaged in drills and
skills that result in improved motor learning and performance.
 Coaching Behaviour
• Use a standard signal to gain athletes' attention. Begin speaking to the team only when everyone's
attention is focused on you.

• Use a variety of coaching techniques that accommodate an athlete’s particular learning needs. •
Use a system for checking back with athletes. For example, if you ask an athlete to review and
rewrite some practice goals, then you should follow up and see that the request was completed.
Relate all drills to the main concept being taught and the purpose of the drill.

• Employ techniques that provide for the gradual transition from concrete to more abstract
activities. For example, begin by teaching a specific skill and then introduce the concept of
generalization and explain how the concrete skill can be applied to other similar motor movement
situations.

• Use a mixture of low and high order questions. Asking questions causes athletes to think and it is
useful to ask them simple questions and then follow up with more complex questions. For example,
you might ask an athlete, "What are you supposed to do on this drill?" and then ask, "What is the
ultimate purpose of this drill?"
 Coaching Behaviour
• Be aware of everything occurring during practice

• Be able to attend so more than one is at a time. Manage a smooth but quick transition from one
practice activity to another.

• Maintain the pace of practice

• Be clear when presenting ideas to the team

• Be able to motivate athletes.

• Communicate clearly and provide evidence of caring, accepting, and valuing your athletes Be
sensitive and responsive to athletes' statements, feelings, experiences,
and obvious and subtle mannerisms and meanings.

• Pay attention to all athletes, not just the elite athletes or the athletes you
prefer to coach.
 Coaching Behaviour
• Use techniques such as rephrasing, providing clues, or asking a new
question when athletes don't understand and can't answer the question
correctly.

• Use praise to reward outstanding performance and encourage underper forming athletes who
aren't able to perform at that level. • Use mild criticism occasionally to communicate expectations
to more able athletes.

• Try to integrate athlete-initiated interactions, such as questions, comments, ideas, and

suggestions into the practice plan. Adapted from A. MacKay, 1982, Project que Teaching age and
pupil achievement. Occasional Paper Series (Alberta, Canadia Centre for Research in Teaching
Faculty of Education, University of Alberta)
 Coaching Behaviour
To further understand the behaviors for highly effective and successful coaching, the United States
Olympic Committee (USOC) surveyed America's elite national team coaches and asked them a
number of questions. One question was what traits or qualities they thought personified a
successful coach (Sellers, 2008). Some of the traits or qualities they ranked as important were
knowledge, communication, listening, commitment, dedication, perseverance, leadership, passion,
open-mindedness, flexibility, creativity, patience, and drive. Their answers also revealed these
additional insights regarding successful coaching

Traits and Qualities of Successful Elite Coaches

• Ability to instill belief, trust, or confidence in athletes
• Big vision, balanced by ability to set and adjust goals
• Caring about others more than self
• Perseverance and a sense of humor