Sensors and Transforms

Arpita howlader
Dept of Computer & Communication Engineering
Patuakhali Science and Technology University

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 Introduction of Sensors and Transforms
• Sensors are sophisticated devices which will detect and measure any non-electrical
physical quantity. A Sensor converts the physical parameter (for example:
temperature, blood pressure, humidity, speed, etc.) into a signal which can be
measured electrically.
• It may be embedded in the transducer to perform its function. That means the
transducer consists of a primary element (sensor) plus a secondary element (signal
conditioning circuit) that transforms the passive change or small voltage signal into
active signal range.
• Transducer = Sensor + Signal conditioning circuit.
• A sensor is a device that detects and responds to some type of input from the
physical environment.
• Real time Example: An Automatic Flight Control System consists of several
sensors for various tasks like speed control, height, position, doors, obstacle, fuel,
maneuvering and many more. A Computer takes data from all these sensors and
processes them by comparing them with pre-designed values.
• The computer then provides control signal to different parts like engines, flaps,
rudders etc. that help in a smooth flight. The combination of Sensors, Computers
and Mechanics makes it possible to run the plane in Autopilot Mode.
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 Characteristics of Sensors
• The important characteristics of sensors are:
– Accuracy : High accuracy is needed
– Environmental condition – The performance of the sensor should not depend
on environmental conditions like temperature or humidity etc.
– Wide Range – Measurement limit of sensor . The range should be high.
– Calibration - Essential for most of the measuring devices as the readings
changes with time.
– Resolution – Sensor must be able to detect even small changes in the input
signal.
– Cost- Sensor should not be very expensive.
– Repeatability – The sensor must be able to reproduce the same output at
similar conditions.
– Linearity : The output of the sensor must be linear

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 Types of Sensors
• There are various types of sensors available , which measures various physical
parameters.
Sensor type Physical Parameter
Temperature Temperature
Light Light / dark
Pressure Pressure or barometric or blood
Moisture amount of moisture present in air1
Water-level How full / empty a container is
Movement Movement nearby
Proximity How close or far something is
• Types of Sensors : Based on the principle of working the sensors are divided into
1. Resistor type
2. Capacitor Type
3. Inductor type etc

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 Types of Sensors
• Resistor type Sensors: A sensor whose resistance changes with the input
signal .i.e based on the variation of the resistance of the sensor element , the
physical parameter is detected. For example , Platinum resistance thermometer or
Thermocouple etc.. are used to measure the temperature with respect to the
variation in the resistance of the material.

• Capacitive type Sensors: These sensors work on the principle of variation of

capacitance with the external input signal. The basic operation of capacitive type
sensors can be seen from a familiar equation for a parallel-plate capacitor. The
capacitive type sensors are used to detect the physical parameters like Humidity
or pressure or proximity etc.

• Inductive type Sensors: These sensors are based on the principle that the
inductance of a coil varies with the change input signal. For example, if a
permeable core is inserted into an inductor the net inductance is increases. The
best example is the LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transducer) which is used
to measure displacements accurately. Inductive proximity sensors use an
electromagnetic field to detect the presence of metal objects.  

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 Limitations of Sensors
The sensors have certain limitations based on their working and construction.
• Some sensors require complex signal conditioning circuitry.
• The output of the certain sensors is not linear and hence additional circuitry is
needed.
• The response time of sensors is some times very high.
• The size of some sensors is large and occupies more space.
• Many times a sensor may respond to more than to one parameter. For example, gas
sensors respond to more than one gas at a time.
• Reliability of a sensor is also a serious problem in some cases.

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 Need and Advantages of IC sensors
• With the developments in semiconductor technology and with the advent of high
speed processors ,the need of IC sensors is rapidly increasing. The Integrated
sensors provide significant advantages in terms of overall size and the ability to use
small signals from the transduction element.
– They do not require complicated signal conditioning circuitry.
– The response time of IC sensors is low.
– The IC sensors are also more stable and accurate.
– The response of IC sensors is more linear than normal sensors.
– The IC sensors support many latest communication protocols (I2C , SPI,
Single wire pulse width modulation etc..), so that they can be interfaced easily
with microprocessors and microcontrollers.
– Provide better noise immunity.
– The smart sensors available today will also provide an alert when the sensed
value exceeds certain critical value.
– IC Sensors are relatively simple and inexpensive.

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 Analogue Sensors
• Analogue Sensors produce a continuous output signal or voltage which is
generally proportional to the quantity being measured. Physical quantities such
as Temperature, Speed, Pressure, Displacement, Strain etc are all analogue
quantities as they tend to be continuous in nature.
• For example, the temperature of a liquid can be measured using a thermometer
or thermocouple which continuously responds to temperature changes as the
liquid is heated up or cooled down.
• Analogue sensors tend to produce output signals that are changing smoothly and
continuously over time. These signals tend to be very small in value from a few
mico-volts (uV) to several milli-volts (mV), so some form of amplification is
required.
• Then circuits which measure analogue signals usually have a slow response and/or
low accuracy. Also analogue signals can be easily converted into digital type
signals for use in micro-controller systems by the use of analogue-to-digital
converters, or ADC’s.

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 Analogue Sensors

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 Digital Sensors
• Digital Sensors produce a discrete digital output signals or voltages that are a
digital representation of the quantity being measured. Digital sensors produce a
Binary output signal in the form of a logic “1” or a logic “0”, (“ON” or “OFF”).
This means then that a digital signal only produces discrete (non-continuous)
values which may be outputted as a single “bit”, (serial transmission) or by
combining the bits to produce a single “byte” output (parallel transmission).
• The disc which is fixed to a rotating shaft (for example, from a motor or robot
wheels), has a number of transparent slots within its design. As the disc rotates with
the speed of the shaft, each slot passes by the sensor in turn producing an output
pulse representing a logic “1” or logic “0” level.
• The advantage of this is that a greater resolution and accuracy is achieved as
fractions of a revolution can be detected. Then this type of sensor arrangement
could also be used for positional control with one of the discs slots representing a
reference position.
• Compared to analogue signals, digital signals or quantities have very high
accuracies and can be both measured and “sampled” at a very high clock speed.
The accuracy of the digital signal is proportional to the number of bits used to
represent the measured quantity. 

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 Digital Sensors

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 Different Types of Sensors
• The following is a small list of projects based on few of the above mentioned
Sensors. 
• Light Sensor – Light Detector Using LDR 
• Smoke Sensor – Smoke Detector Alarm Circuit
• Alcohol Sensor – How To Make Alcohol Breathalyzer Circuit? 
• Touch Sensor – Touch Dimmer Switch Circuit Using Arduino
• Color Sensor – Arduino Based Color Detector
• Humidity Sensor – DHT11 Humidity Sensor On Arduino

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 Transducer
• A transducer is a device that converts energy from one form to another. Usually a
transducer converts a signal in one form of energy to a signal in another.
• Transducers are often employed at the boundaries of automation, measurement,
and control systems, where electrical signals are converted to and from other
physical quantities (energy, force, torque, light, motion, position, etc.). The
process of converting one form of energy to another is known as transduction.
• Transducers that convert physical quantities into mechanical quantities are
known as mechanical transducers; transducers that convert physical quantities
into electrical quantities are known as electrical transducers.

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 Types of Transducer
Types of Transducer based on Whether an External Power Source is required or not
– Active Transducer : Active transducers are those which do not require any
power source for their operation. They work on the energy conversion
principle. They produce an electrical signal proportional to the input (physical
quantity). For example, a thermocouple is an active transducer.
The physical quantity like velocity, temperature, force and the intensity of light
is induced with the help of the transducer. The piezoelectric crystal, photo-
voltaic cell, tacho generator, thermocouples, photovoltaic cell are the examples
of the active transducers.

– Passive Transducers: Transducers which require an external power source for

their operation is called as a passive transducer. They produce an output signal
in the form of some variation in resistance, capacitance or any other electrical
parameter, which than has to be converted to an equivalent current or voltage
signal. For example, a photocell (LDR) is a passive transducer which will vary
the resistance of the cell when light falls on it. This change in resistance is
converted to proportional signal with the help of a bridge circuit. Hence a
photocell can be used to measure the intensity of light.

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 Types of Transducer
Primary and Secondary Transducer
• Primary Transducer – The transducer consists the mechanical as well as the
electrical devices. The mechanical devices of the transducer change the physical
input quantities into a mechanical signal. This mechanical device is known as the
primary transducers.
• Secondary Transducer – The secondary transducer converts the mechanical
signal into an electrical signal. The magnitude of the output signal depends on the
input mechanical signal.
• Example of Primary and Secondary Transducer
– Consider the Bourdon’s Tube shown in the figure below. The tube act as a
primary transducer. It detects the pressure and converts it into a displacement
from its free end. The displacement of the free ends moves the core of the
linear variable displacement transformer. The movement of the core induces
the output voltage which is directly proportional to the displacement of the
tube free end.
– Thus, the two type of transduction occurs in the Bourdon’s tube. First, the
pressure is converted into a displacement and then it is converted into the
voltage by the help of the L.V.D.T.

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 Types of Transducer

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 What is an LVDT
• The LVDT full form is “Linear Variable Differential Transformer” is LVDT.
Generally, LVDT is a normal type of transducer. The main function of this is to
convert the rectangular movement of an object to the equivalent electrical signal.
LVDT is used to calculate displacement and works on the transformer principle.

• The above LVDT sensor diagram comprises a core as well as a coil assembly. Here,
the core is protected by the thing whose location is being calculated, while the coil
assembly is increased to a stationary structure. The coil assembly includes three
wire wound coils on the hollow shape. The inside coil is the major, which is
energized by an AC source. The magnetic flux generated by the main is attached to
the two minor coils, making an AC voltage in every coil.

• The main benefit of this transducer when we compared with other LVDT types is
toughness. As there is no material contact across the sensing component.

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 What is an LVDT

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 LVDT
• LVDT Construction: LVDT comprises of a cylindrical former, which is
bounded by one main winding in the hub of the former and the two minor
LVDT windings are wound on the surfaces. The amount of twists in both
the minor windings is equivalent, but they are reverse to each other like
clockwise direction and anti-clockwise direction.
• For this reason, the o/p voltages will be the variation in voltages among the
two minor coils. These two coils are denoted with S1 & S2. Esteem iron
core is located in the middle of the cylindrical former. The excitation
voltage of AC is 5-12V and the operating frequency is given by 50 to 400
HZ.
• Working Principle of LVDT: The working principle of the linear variable
differential transformer or LVDT working theory is mutual induction. The
dislocation is a nonelectrical energy that is changed into an electrical
energy. And, how the energy is altered is discussed in detail in the working
of an LVDT.

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 LVDT

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 LVDT
• Working of an LVDT
• The working of LVDT circuit diagram can be divided into three cases
based on the position of the iron core in the insulated former.
• In Case-1: When the core of the LVDT is at the null location, then both
the minor windings flux will equal, so the induced e.m.f is similar in the
windings. So for no dislocation, the output value (eout) is zero because
both the e1 & e2 are equivalent. Thus, it illustrates that no dislocation took
place.
• In Case-2: When the core of the LVDT is shifted to up to the null point.
In this case, the flux involving with minor winding S1 is additional as
contrasted to flux connecting with the S 2 winding. Due to this reason, e1
will be added as that of e2. Due to this eout (output voltage) is positive.
• In Case-3: When the core of the LVDT is shifted down to the null point,
In this case, the amount of e2 will be added as that of e1. Due to this
eout output voltage will be negative plus it illustrates the o/p to down on
the location point.

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 LVDT

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 What is RVDT?
• RVDT full form stands for a Rotary variable differential transformer.
• Electro-mechanical-- inductive transducer
• Converts angular displacement into the corresponding electrical signal.
• RVDT is an AC-controlled device, --- high accuracy level.
• Coil of RVDT -- to measure an angular position, (angular position sensor)
• The electrical output of RVDT is obtained by the difference in secondary
voltages of the transformer, so it is called a Differential Transformer.
• RVDT is also a passive transducer.

• The design and construction of RVDT is similar to LVDT. The only

difference is the shape of the core in transformer windings.
• LVDT uses the soft iron core to measure the linear displacement
• RVDT uses the Cam-shaped core (Rotating core) for measuring the angular
displacement.

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 RVDT Theory
• If we denote both the secondary voltages by Es1 and Es2 (see in below
fig.) and also the sensitivity of RVDT is G. Then the angular displacement
of the shaft will vary as:

• The secondary voltage is determined by the help of the equation given

below as:

• The differential output Es1 – Es2 will be determined as

• A total sum of voltages will be calculated as a constant C.

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 RVDT Construction:
• RVDT has two types of winding i.e. Primary winding and Secondary
winding.
• The primary and secondary winding are wound on a former. There are two
secondary winding having equal number of turns.
• These winding are placed on either side of the primary winding identically.
• A cam formed a magnetic core which is made with a soft iron is coupled to
a shaft. core can be twisted among the windings.
• The construction of both the RVDT and LVDT are similar but the main
difference is the shape of the core in transformer windings. This core will
turn between the two windings of the transformer due to the shaft.

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 RVDT working principle

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 RVDT working principle
• The reluctance seen by the primary mmf changes with the rotation of cam shaft.
The change in magnetic flux with rotation of cam, the flux linkage of secondary
winding also changes.
• As per the transformer action, an emf is induced in secondary winding. The
magnitude of induced emf will depend on the rate of change of rotation. The more
the rate of change of rotation, the more will be the rate of change of flux w.r.t. and
hence more emf will be induced.
• As can be seen from the figure, the two secondary winding are connected in series
but in phase opposition. This is done to get a single output voltage from the
transducer.
• When AC excitation of 5-15V at a frequency of 50-400 Hz is applied to the primary
windings of RVDT then a magnetic field is produced inside the core that induces a
mutual current in secondary windings.
• Then due to transformer action, the induced voltages in secondary windings (S1 and
S2) are Es1 and Es2 respectively.
• The net output voltage will be the difference between both the induced secondary
voltages.
• Output will be E0 = Es1 – Es2
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 RVDT working principle
• Case 1: When the core is at the Null position.
• When the core is at the null position then the flux linkage with both the secondary
windings will be the same. So the induced emf (Es1 & Es2) in both the windings
will be the same. Hence the Net differential output voltage E0 = Es1 – Es2 will be
zero (E0 = Es1 – Es2 = 0). It shows that no displacement of the core.
• Case 2: When the core rotates in the clockwise direction.
• When the core of RVDT rotates in the clockwise direction. Then, in this case, the
flux linkage with S1 will be more as compared to S2. This means the emf induced
in S1 will be more than the induced emf in S2. Hence Es1>Es2 and Net differential
output voltage E0 = Es1 – Es2 will be positive. This means the output voltage E0
will be in phase with the primary voltage.
• Case 3: When the core rotates in the anti-clockwise direction.
• When the core of RVDT rotates in the anti-clockwise direction. Then, in this case,
the flux linkage with S2 will be more as compared to S1. This means the emf
induced in S2 will be more than the induced emf in S1. Hence Es2>Es1 and Net
differential output voltage E0 = Es1 – Es2 will be negative. This means the output
voltage E0 will be in phase opposition (180 degrees out of phase) with the primary
voltage.
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 Types of Transducer
Types of Transducer based on the Principle of Operation
– Variation in Resistance – for external force resistance change and voltage
change. The change in resistance of metal wire due to the change in
temperature known by the measurement of temperature. The change in the
resistance of conductive strip due to the change of moisture content is known
by the value of its corresponding humidity.

– Variation in Inductance – LVDT, change in inductance when excited by AC

supply. Proximity Inductance Type – The inductance change of an alternating
current excited coil due to the change in the magnetic circuit is known by its
corresponding pressure or displacement. The change in magnetic properties
due to change in pressure and stress is known by its corresponding sound
value, pressure or force.

– Variation in Capacitance – The change in capacitance due to the change of

distance between two parallel plates caused by an external force is known by
its corresponding displacement or pressure. The change in capacitance due to
the variation in sound pressure on a movable diagram is known by its
corresponding sound.
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 Types of Transducer
• Types of Transducer based on Quantity to be Measured
– Temperature transducers (e.g. a thermocouple)
– Pressure transducers (e.g. a diaphragm)
– Displacement transducers (e.g. LVDT)
– Oscillator transducer
– Flow transducers
– Inductive Transducer
• Types of Transducer based on the Principle of Operation
– Photovoltaic (e.g. a solar cell)
– Piezoelectric transducer
– Chemical
– Mutual induction
– Electromagnetic
– Hall effect
– Photoconductors

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 Types of Transducer
• The transducer can also be classified by their output signals. The output signal of
the transducer may be continuous or discrete.
– Analog Transducer – The Analog transducer changes the input quantity into a
continuous function. The strain gauge, L.V.D.T, thermocouple, thermistor are
the examples of the analogue transducer.
– Digital Transducer  – These transducers convert an input quantity into a
digital signal or in the form of the pulse. The digital signals work on high or
low power.

• Transducer – The device which converts the non-electrical quantity into an

electric quantity is known as the transducer.
• Inverse Transducer – The transducer which converts the electric quantity into a
physical quantity, such type of transducers is known as the inverse transducer. The
transducer has high electrical input and low non-electrical output.

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