 Active and Passive Gain

 Azimuth and elevation charts (antenna radiation envelopes)

 Interpreting polar charts
 Beamwidth
 Antenna types
 Omnidirectional antennas
 Semidirectional antennas
 Highly directional antennas
 Phased array antennas
 Sector antennas
 Visual line of sight
 RF line of sight
 Fresnel zone
 Earth bulge
 Antenna polarization
 Antenna diversity
 Multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO)
 Understand passive and active gain
 Understand how antennas provide passive gain and how
transceivers and amplifiers provide active gain.
 Know the different categories and types of
antennas, how they radiate signals, and what
type of environment they are used in.
 Make sure you know the three main categories of
antennas and the different types of antennas. know the
similarities and differences between them, and
understand when and why you would use one antenna
over another. Make sure that you understand azimuth
and elevation charts, beamwidth, antenna polarization,
and antenna diversity.
 Fully understand the Fresnel zone.
 Make sure you understand all of the issues and variables
involved with installing point-to-point communications. You
are not required to memorize the Fresnel zone or earth
bulge formulas; however, you will need to know the
principles regarding these topics and when and why you
would use the formulas.
 Understand the concerns associated with connecting
and installing antennas and the antenna accessories.
 Every cable, connector, and device between the transceiver
and the antenna affects the signal that gets radiated from
the antenna. Understand which devices provide gain and
which devices provide loss. Understand what vSWR is and
what values are good or bad. know the different antenna
accessories, what they do, and why and when you would
use them.
 Signal must be radiate with enough power so
that is will be understood by the receiver
 Antenna installation will have a great effect.
 Simple-omni-directionalin middle of office
 Complex-multiple semi-directional antennas

Pg 107
 Measurements of the increase in signal from
the Antenna (EIRP)
 If gain is from an amplifier or increased power at
the transmitter-it is ACTIVE Gain
 If from shaping or focusing the power with an
antenna,-PASSIVE Gain

 Passive gain from focusing existing Power

 Active Gain by adding more power

Pg 107
 Focusing isotropic energy in a specific
pattern
 Created by the design of the antenna
 Uses the magnify glass concept
 Providing an external power source
 Amplifier
 High gain transmitters
 Charts help you “see” how antennas focus energy
 Polar charts or antenna radiation envelopes

Pg 109
 In either chart, the antenna is placed at the
middle of the chart.
 Azimuth chart = H-plane = top-down view
 Elevation chart = E-plane = side view
 Like casting a shadow with your hand
 Shape is same, but size grows with power.

Pg 109
 Easy to misinterpret
 Thechart shows the DECIBEL mapping of
coverage
 Each line 5 dB!!
 Normalized charts appear very different

Pg 110
 Easy to misinterpret
 The chart shows the DECIBEL mapping of coverage
 Each line 5 dB!!
 Normalized charts appear very different

Pg 110
 The measure of how broad or narrow the
focus of an antenna is
 Measured both horizontally and vertically
 To the point where the signal decreases by half
power (-3dB)

Pg 113
 First determine the scale of the polar chart. On this
chart, you can see that the solid circles represent
the –10, –20, and –30 dB lines, and the dotted
circles therefore represent the –5, –15, and –25 dB
line
 Now to determine the beamwidth of this antenna,
frst locate the point on the chart where the
antenna signal is the strongest. In this example, the
signal is strongest where the number 1 arrow is
pointing. Move along the antenna pattern away
from the peak signal (as shown by the two number 2
arrows) until you reach the point where the antenna
pattern is 3 dB closer to the center of the diagram
(as shown by the two number 3 arrows).
 This is why you needed to know the scale of the
chart first. Draw a line from each of these points to
the middle of the polar chart (as shown by the dark
dotted lines) and measure the distance in degrees
between these lines to calculate the beamwidth of
the antenna. In this example, the beamwidth of this
antenna is about 30 degrees.

Pg 113
 Omnidirectional
 Omnidirectional antennas radiate RF in a fashion similar to the way a table or foor
lamp radiates light. They are designed to provide general coverage in all directions.
 Semidirectional
 Semidirectional antennas radiate RF in a fashion similar to the way a wall sconce
radiates light away from the wall or the way a street lamp shines light down on a
street or a parking lot, providing a directional light across a large area.
 Highly directional
 Highly directional antennas radiate RF in a fashion similar to the way a spotlight
focuses light on a fag or a sign.

Pg 115
 Antennas not only amplify transmitted signal,
they amplify received signal

Pg 115
 Common on many access Points
 Dipole
 Rubber duck
 Bagel shaped transmission
 Wide horizontal coverage
 Limited vertical coverage
 Low gain antennas are usually 2.14dB
 Higher gain is more elongated
Pg 116
 Low Gain Omni-directional Antenna

The omni antenna is the most commonly used antenna type

 Provides 360º horizontal High Gain Omni-directional Antenna

coverage pattern along a flat
plane.
 Gain of signal along the
horizontal plane means less signal
along the vertical plane
 Omni-directional antennas are
also known as dipoles.
 Antennas are most effective when the
element is an even fraction or a multiple
of the wavelength (λ)
 ¼, ½, 1, 2, etc.
 Higher gain antennas are often made by
stacking dipole antennas
 Used in multipoint environments
 Indoor Access Point
 Building to multiple building coverage
 Beware of higher gain limiting the vertical coverage

Pg 117
 Designed to direct the signal in a specific
direction
 Pointto point-outdoors about a mile
 Down hallways
 Three types
 Planar Type
 Patch
 Panel
 Yagi

Pg 118
 Multiple planar antennas can be used to
cover multiple aisles
 Libraries, Warehouses, Retail, etc
 Yagi antennas are like old TV antennas
 However,each element is fitted for wireless
wavelengths
 Even fraction or multiple of wavelength

Pg 119
 Also good on walls
 Most have limited side lobe and vertical and
can be pointed down for coverage

Pg 121
Patch
Semi-directional Antennas

 Patch, Panel, Yagi and

Sector are the primary semi-
directional antenna types on
the market today
 Semi-directional antennas
have 180º or less of
horizontal and vertical beam
width
 Primary coverage uses
include:
Hallways/Corridors
Wireless ISPs
Patch PTP & PTMP Bridging

Multiple semi-directional
antennas can be combined
into an array to provide
omni-directional coverage.
 For Point to Point
 Generally between two buildings
 Focused, narrow beamwidth
 Two main types
 ParabolicDish
 Grid Antenna
 Since they are used outdoors, wind
loading is an issue
 Since
they have narrow beamwidth, the wind
can push them out of direction

Pg 121
 Highly focused energy
 Most common type - parabolic
 Multiple antennas connected to a signal
processor
 Different antennas can be fed different
phases
 Able to create very directed beams
 Usually regulated differently
 Not common in 802.11
 802.11n has a PHY specification that supports
it
 Smart antenna technology

Pg 123
 Specialized high gain, semidirectional
antenna
 Multiple antennas with limited back lobe
 Each antenna can be on its on its own transceiver
 Usually set up to provide 360 degree
coverage
 Used extensively in cellular phone systems

Pg 123
 The “line” from source to destination
 Visual LOS is not important on Wireless networks
 RF line of sight is
 Mostly for outdoor point to point connections
 Should be unobstructed

Pg 124
 Visual line of sight
 RF line of sight
 Fresnel zone
 Football shaped area around the “LOS”
 Actually multiple zones surrounding the main
line of sight
 If first Fresnel zone is obstructed, it will
affect the transmissions
 more than 40% will make link unrealiable
 Keep it to less than 20%

Pg 125
 You need to understand how the calculations
will affect placement when designing a point
to point.
 Can calculate the size of the zone in middle
 Or at certain distances
 Important for keeping out obstructions

Pg 125
 Don’t mistake smaller beamwidth for smaller
Fresnel zone
 Fresnel zone is affected by the frequency of
the transmission, not the antenna

Pg 128
 For longer Point to Point links-More than 7
miles
 Important to calculate height requirements
for towers

Pg 128
 Alignment of the antenna can affect
polarization
 Doesn’t matter if it is horizontal or
vertical, both transmitter and receiver
need to be the same way
 Most systems have antenna diversity
 Multiple antennas (more than one wavelength
away)
 If the Received Signal Level (RSL) is 10 to
15 dB less than expected, you may be
linking to a side lobe
Pg 130
 Helps compensate for multipath
 An AP has multiple antennas
 Compares the signal from each antenna and choose
the best signal
 802.11n uses switched diversity
 Signal with the best amplitude is used
 Also known as received diversity
 Can also use measurement to choose the
transmit antenna

Pg 130
 Don’t put the antennas in different locations or
point in different directions
 That defeats the purpose
 Usually a single radio with multiple connections
 Common inside laptops

Pg 130
 More sophisticated type of antenna diversity
 Takes advantage of multipath
 Uses Space Time Coding
 Send multiple signals simultaneously

Pg 132
 Measure of the change in impedances to an
AC signal
 Whenthere is a difference or mismatch in
impedance between devices in a RF system
 Forward Energy is reflected backward to the
transmitter
 Usually at points where you are connecting
 Cable to transmitter
 Cable to antenna

Pg 133
 Ratio of energy reflected is the voltage
reflection coefficient
 Return Loss
 Ideally, there is no mismatch
A matched cable, 0 ratio, infinite return loss
 VSWR is a measure between the maximum
voltage and minimum voltage
 VSWR=Vmax/Vmin

Pg 133
 Higher the return loss, the less broadcast
power
 Return voltage can also damage the transmitter

Pg 133
 The goal when connecting the antenna to
transmitter is to reduce signal loss
 Must pay attention to devices used
 Cables and connectors

Pg 134
 Placement
 Mounting
 Appropriate Use
 Orientation and alignment
 Safety
 Maintenance

Pg 134
 Correct placement for type of antenna
 Omnidirectional toward center
 Semi-direction at edge, pointed toward center
 Pay attention to vertical and horizontal
coverage
 Also, power levels-
 Toohigh a power will provide an overlarge
coverage area
 Security risk
 Outdoors-Watch the Fresnel Zone

Pg 135
 Outdoors
 Masts or towers
 Indoors
 Wall or ceiling
 Often want to hide or camouflage for
aesthetics

Pg 135
 Indoor vs. Outdoor
 Although they look the same, they are
designed for correct temperature and
environment

Pg 136
 Pay attention to horizontal vs. vertical
alignment
 Polarization can make the difference
between being able to communicate or not

Pg 136
 Be careful
 RF health and safety courses
 FCC and OSHA regulations
 If installing on a tower, pole, etc-get a
professional.

Pg 135
 Preventative and diagnostic
 Don’t just set and forget
 Especially not outdoors
 Outdoors you need to be aware of wind and
water damage
 Wind
 Properly mount
 Water
 Cold-shrink tubing, sealant, drip loops

Pg 137
 All devices attached in the RF system need to
be checked for
 Frequency response
 Impedance
 VSWR
 Maximum input power
 Insertion loss

Pg 137
 Choose the correct cable based on
technology, frequency, etc
 Some cables can’t be used with some
frequencies
 Match the impedance
 Calculate the signal loss
 Different for different frequencies
 Purchase pre-cut of hire a professional
 You want to measure loss in the connections

Pg 139
 FCC has mandated that manufacturers use
unique connectors to limit the ability to use
noncertified antennas
 Pigtail adapters get around this requirement
 Be careful of exceeding FCC regulations

Pg 139
 Join cables and devices together
 AP to antenna
 Antenna to cable
 Cable to cable
 Etc.
 Signal splitter, RF splitter, Power Splitter
 Used when you need the signal to go to more
than one location
 Multiple antennas
 Will cause loss and degradation of signal
 Power monitoring

Pg 139
 For active gain
 Unidirectional
 transmit only
 Bi-directional
 Transmit and receive
 Fixed output
 Generate a signal equal to that of the amplifier
 Fixed Gain
 Adds amplifier to transmitter power

Pg 140
 In cases where you need to limit the range or
power
 If the minimum power setting isn’t small enough

Pg 140
 Protect from power surges due to nearby
strikes
 Direct strike will fry it
 Protects the devices behind it on the circuit

Pg 141
 Lightning Arrestors

 An in-line RF device that

must be connected to Earth
ground
 Dissipates static
electricity in the air
 When objects near RF
Does not prevent equipment loss in antennas are struck,
cases of direct lightning strikes! electrical current is induced
Pg 141
 Important to have a common ground
 Properlysunk copper rod and connectors
 Tinned copper wire to connect tower legs

Pg 142
 Understand passive and active gain
 Understand how antennas provide passive gain and how
transceivers and amplifiers provide active gain.
 Know the different categories and types of
antennas, how they radiate signals, and what
type of environment they are used in.
 Make sure you know the three main categories of
antennas and the different types of antennas. know the
similarities and differences between them, and
understand when and why you would use one antenna
over another. Make sure that you understand azimuth
and elevation charts, beamwidth, antenna polarization,
and antenna diversity.
 Fully understand the Fresnel zone.
 Make sure you understand all of the issues and variables
involved with installing point-to-point communications. You
are not required to memorize the Fresnel zone or earth
bulge formulas; however, you will need to know the
principles regarding these topics and when and why you
would use the formulas.
 Understand the concerns associated with connecting
and installing antennas and the antenna accessories.
 Every cable, connector, and device between the transceiver
and the antenna affects the signal that gets radiated from
the antenna. Understand which devices provide gain and
which devices provide loss. Understand what vSWR is and
what values are good or bad. know the different antenna
accessories, what they do, and why and when you would
use them.