Chapter 3

Radio Frequency Components, Measurement

and mathematics
Exam Essentials
 Understand the RF components.
 Know the function of each of the components and which
components add gain and which components add loss.
 Understand the units of power and comparison.
 Make sure you are very comfortable with the difference between
units of power (absolute) and units of comparison (relative). Know
all of the units of power and comparison, what they measure, and
how they are used.
 Be able to perform RF mathematics.
 There will be no logarithms on the test; however, you must know
how to use the rule of 10s and 3s. You will need to be able to
calculate a result based on a scenario, power value, or comparative
change.
Exam Essentials
 Understand the practical uses of RF mathematics.
 When all is said and done, the ultimate question is, Will the RF
communication work? This is where an understanding of RSSI,
SOM, fade margin, and link budget is important.
 Define RSSI.
 Understand that RSSI metrics are used by radios to interpret signal
strength and quality. 802.11 radios use RSSI metrics for decisions
such as roaming and dynamic rate switching. Understand the
necessity of a link budget and fade margin. A link budget is the sum
of all gains and losses from the transmitting radio, through the RF
medium, to the receiver radio. The purpose of link budget
calculations is to guarantee that the final received signal amplitude is
above the receiver sensitivity threshold of the receiver radio. Fade
margin is a level of desired signal above what is required.
Communications
For successful communications you need:
Two or more devices that want to communicate
Medium of communication
Set of rules to use
This chapter covers the medium
Components of RF
Transmission of RF signal
Role of each device

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RF Components
Transmitter
Antenna
Receiver
Intentional Radiator
Equivalent Isotropically Radiated Power (EIRP)
Transmitter
Transmitter begins RF communication
Generates the AC signal
Modifies the signal based on modulation technique
Carrier Signal goes through cable or direct to antenna
Transmitter also sets the power level, or
transmission amplitude
Dictated by regulation and can be adjusted
Often integrated with receiver-Transciever
Antenna
Collects AC signal from transmitter and radiates RF
waves
With receiver, takes RF Waves and directs to receiver
Receiver converts back to bits and bytes
Antenna signal is compared to a theoretical isotropic
radiator
Point source that radiates equally in all directions

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Antenna
Antenna Power can be modified by
Adding power-Active Gain
Focusing Energy-Passive Gain
 Like a lens

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Receiver
Takes carrier signal from antenna and convert back
into 1 and 0
Signal is much decreased from original amplitude
Free Space Path Loss
Also altered due to interference and multipath

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Intentional Radiator
Device that intentionally generates and emits radio
frequency energy by radiation or induction
On purpose as opposed to by-product
All components up to the antenna
Transmitter, cable, connectors, equipment
The antenna can alter by focusing
FCC dictates max power, usually in MilliWatts
(mW) or decibels relative to 1 milliwatt (dBm)

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 Units of Power and Comparison
Key ideas for wireless are coverage
and performance
To measure power, we can measure
absolute or relative power
Absolute is compared to a known scale
Relative is to another signal

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 Units of Power and Comparison
Comparative units can help:
compare coverage areas for different signals
Measure gain or loss
Measure the change in power

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Units of Power and Comparison

Units of Power Units of Comparison

(absolute) (Relative)
watt (W) decibel (dB)
milliwatt (mW) dBi
dBm dBd

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 Watt
Basic unit of power
1 ampere of current at 1 volt
Volts x Amps
Ability to move/push/etc

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 MilliWatt (mW)
1/1000 th of a watt
Most 802.11 equipment is measured in milliwatts
Usually 1 to 100 mw
FCC may allow up to 1 W in some cases, but it isn’t usually
needed except in point to point.

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 Decibel (dB)
Base unit of comparison, not of power
Represents the difference between two values
Compare the power of two transmitters
Compare the output of a transmitter and received at the
receiver
From the term bel
Bell Labs
10 to 1 ratio

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Decibel (dB)
Bels are logarithmic
Use the log10 to calculate

101=10 Log10(10)=1

102=100 Log10(100)=2

103=1000 Log10(1000)=3

104=10000 Log10(10000)=4

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Decibel (dB)
Decibels are 10 x a bel
bel=log10(P1/P2)
decibel= 10Xlog10(P1/P2)

No log math on the test!

We use decibels instead of watts as it is easier to
write in many cases.

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dBi
Antennas are compared to isotropic radiators
The difference between the theoretical isotropic
radiator and the actual antenna can be measures in
decibels isotropic (dBi)
Relative measurement
Change in power relative to an antenna
Measure of antenna gain
Measured at focus point
Always a gain, not a loss
No-gain or unity gain (0 dBi)
Think antenna Gain

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dBd
A second relative measure of strength
Decibel dipole
Decibel gain relative to a dipole antenna
Can also compare to dBi
Standard dipole is 2.14 dBi
If an antenna is 3 dBd the total is additive
 2.14+3=5.14 dBi

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dBm
Absolute measurement
Decibels relative to 1 mw of power
So 100 mW= +20dBm
Can also calc from a dBm value
PmW=log-1(PdBm/10)
1 mW is reference and 0 dBm is 1 mW

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dBm
Why use dBm?
Easier to grasp -100dBm than .0000000001 mW
Also, the 6dB rule
If you double the distance between a received and
transmitter, the received signal will decrease by 6 dB.
Also, every 6dBi of gain will double the usable distance
of the RF signal
Also helps when adding units
If transmitter is +20dBm and the antenna is 5 dBi, the
EIRP is 25 dBm

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RF Math
Rules of 10s and 3s
Provide for approximate values
For every 3 dB of gain (relative), double the
absolute power (mW).
For every 3 dB of loss (relative), halve the
absolute power (mW).
For every 10 dB of gain (relative), multiply the
absolute power (mW) by a factor of 10.
For every 10 dB of loss (relative), divide the
absolute power (mW) by a factor of 10.

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RF Math
For every 3 dB of gain (relative), double the absolute
power (mW).
For example, if your access point is configured to
transmit at 100 mW and the antenna is rated for 3 dBi of
passive gain, the amount of power that will radiate out of
the antenna (EIRP) will be 200 mW

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RF Math
For every 3 dB of loss (relative), halve the absolute
power (mW).
Conversely, if your access point is configured to transmit
at 100 mW and is attached to a cable that introduces 3 dB
of loss, the amount of absolute amplitude at the end of
the cable will be 50 mW

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RF Math
For every 10 dB of gain (relative), multiply the
absolute power (mW) by a factor of 10.
In another example, if your access point is configured to
transmit at 40 mW and the antenna is rated for 10 dBi of
passive gain, the amount of power that radiates out of the
antenna (EIRP) will be 400 mW

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RF Math
For every 10 dB of loss (relative), divide the absolute
power (mW) by a factor of 10.
Conversely, if your access point is configured to transmit
at 40 mW and is attached to a cable that introduces 10 dB
of loss, the amount of absolute amplitude at the end of
the cable will be 4 mW.

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RF Math
dBm is a measure of power
dB is a unit of change
dB can be applied to dBm
So, if you have +10dBm and increase by 3 dB, you
have +13 dBm

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RF Math Summary
Log Functions
dBm =10 × log10(mW)
mW = log–1 (dBm ÷ 10) = 10(dBm ÷ 10)
Rules of 10 and 3
3 dB gain = mW × 2
3 dB loss = mW ÷ 2
10 dB gain = mW × 10
10 dB loss = mW ÷ 10

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RF Math Summary

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Received Signal Strength Indicator
(RSSI)
Receive sensitivity is the power level of an RF signal
required to be successfully received by the receiver
The lower this level, the more sensitive the receiver.
For 802.11 receive sensitivity is often defined as a
function of network speed
In order to use a certain speed, you must have a certain
level of loss
 More loss, less speed.

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Sensitivity Thresholds

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Received Signal Strength Indicator
(RSSI)
802.11-2007 standard defines received signal strength
indicator as a relative metric used to measure
amplitude.
0 to 255
Usually mapped to receive sensitivity thresholds in
dBm

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Received Signal Strength Indicator
(RSSI)

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Received Signal Strength Indicator
(RSSI)
802.11-2007 also defines Signal Quality (SQ)
Singal quality as it affects coding techniques like barker
or complementary code keying
Anything that affects bit error rate (BER) will trigger SQ
metrics
RSSI and SQ are often refered to together as RSSI
metrics

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Received Signal Strength Indicator
(RSSI)
Signal to Noise Ration (SNR) is not signal quality
It is a measure of the difference between the received
signal and background noise (noise floor)
Noise is -100 dBm and radio receives -85dBm the SNR
is 15 dB
 25dB or greater is considered good
Vendors get to choose how to map RSSI
proprietary

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Received Signal Strength Indicator
(RSSI)
Most vendors use RSSI for decisions on roaming and
dynamic rate switching
Roaming is when a client switches from one AP to
another
Dynamic Rate Switching is when 802.11 radios switch
between data rates
Often due to reduced signal quality or loss

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Link Budget
Sum of all gains and losses from transmitting radio,
through the RF medium to the receiver radio
Calculated to make sure the final received signal is about
the sensitivity threshold

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Link Budget
Link budget calculations include
original transmit gain
passive antenna gain
active gain from RF amplifiers.
All gain must be accounted for, including RF
amplifiers and antennas, and all losses must be
accounted for, including attenuators, FSPL, and
insertion loss.

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Link Budget
Loss in many places

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Link Budget

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Link Budget
Simpler example
+20 dBm + 5 dBi – 73.98 dB + 2.14 dBi = –46.84 dBm

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Fade Margin/System Operating Margin
Level of desired signal above what is required.
The buffer, or comfort zone
Plan for 10 to 25 dB above the receive sensitivity
10 dB is minimum
Higher if more MILEs away
Fade Margin buffer is also known as the System
Operating Margin (SOM)

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Exam Essentials
 Understand the RF components.
 Know the function of each of the components and which
components add gain and which components add loss.
 Understand the units of power and comparison.
 Make sure you are very comfortable with the difference between
units of power (absolute) and units of comparison (relative). Know
all of the units of power and comparison, what they measure, and
how they are used.
 Be able to perform RF mathematics.
 There will be no logarithms on the test; however, you must know
how to use the rule of 10s and 3s. You will need to be able to
calculate a result based on a scenario, power value, or comparative
change.
Exam Essentials
 Understand the practical uses of RF mathematics.
 When all is said and done, the ultimate question is, Will the RF
communication work? This is where an understanding of RSSI,
SOM, fade margin, and link budget is important.
 Define RSSI.
 Understand that RSSI metrics are used by radios to interpret signal
strength and quality. 802.11 radios use RSSI metrics for decisions
such as roaming and dynamic rate switching. Understand the
necessity of a link budget and fade margin. A link budget is the
sum of all gains and losses from the transmitting radio, through the
RF medium, to the receiver radio. The purpose of link budget
calculations is to guarantee that the final received signal amplitude is
above the receiver sensitivity threshold of the receiver radio. Fade
margin is a level of desired signal above what is required.