Research Design (RD)

 The RD is a complex concept to define in short-cut clear

terms
 Just like in the research problem formulation, the prior
planning (designing) is essential before any actual research
 Researchers should apply mind (logic) as to the way in
which the research inquiry should proceed in order to
attain the intended objectives
 The plan that precedes the actual execution of the research
activity is what is referred to as the RD
 However, isn’t an exact & specific plan to be followed
strictly without deviation like the building blueprint;
 but rather a series of guide-posts that keeps the research
going through in the right direction
Dr Onsare Henry 02/25/2023 1
 Cont …
 Normally the researchers are always guided by the common
maxim that
 ‘while discovery cannot be pre-planned, the actual work must i.e
 if the research activity has to end-up in the Discovery of
Something NEW’.
 Thus a RD is an overall plan of any scientific research activity;
 which encompasses among other things, the data collection
procedures, measurement tools, analysis & the possible
interpretations
 It’s an outline of what the researcher intends to accomplish -
 right from conception of the idea, area identification & framing of
topic, issues raised, hypotheses formulation, data collection
procedure, data analysis & possible interpretations, findings,
conclusions, recommendations and Reporting

Dr Onsare Henry 02/25/2023 2

 Cont …
 The RDs constitute the blueprint for the collection, analysis &
measurement of data
 It’s a device which clearly specifies the research problem,

suggests the approach & the type of analytical work thru’ the
appropriate Methods & Tools for data collection and foresees the
final outcome (hypothesizing)
 In other words it’s a program that guides investigators in the

process of collecting, analyzing & interpreting data

 It reflects an outline of the structure & the process of the

research activity.
 Thus, a well-schemed RD expresses both the structure & the

plan of inquiry used to obtain the required empirical evidences

 A structure is a framework, an organized chart / configuration

reflecting the kind of relations among variables i.e the

conceptual framework.
Dr Onsare Henry 02/25/2023 3
 Essentials of good Research Design X
 It’s a plan that specifies objectives &
hypotheses being tested
 An outline that specifies sources & types of

info relevant to research issues

 A blueprint specifying the methods for

gathering & analyzing data

 It’s a plan that defines the “domain of

generalizing” i.e whether obtained info can

be generalized to a larger population i.e
under similar or different situations

Dr Onsare Henry 02/25/2023 4

 Nature of Research Design

 The RD is a tentative plan which undergoes modification

as the study progresses and as circumstances demand i.e
as the new aspects, new conditions, new interactions
emerge & insights deepen.
 For instance, the scope may be narrowed down, when its
discovered that certain kinds of data are unavailable;
 sampling methods may be modified from “random
sampling with PPS to simple random sampling”
 if the list of units within a particular size is not readily
available

Dr Onsare Henry 02/25/2023 5

 Cont …
 The research may not be as extensive & intensive as earlier
preferred,
 Thus, it has to be narrowed down based upon the
unavailability of data & respondents’ uncooperativeness
 Resources: it has to be kept within researcher’s own
manageable limits i.e mental ability & cabability, researcher’s
competence to grasp the research implications, time & funds
available for the purpose, etc.
 Thus, the RDs “represents compromises dictated by many
practical considerations;
 but without compromising the initially intended central focus
of the research inquiry.
 Hence, the RD is a complicated & time-consuming device to
prepare in one seating
Dr Onsare Henry 02/25/2023 6
 Cont …
 Moreover there’s no single research design for a
particular inquiry in the strict sense of the term;
 bcoz the RDs differ significantly with different
researchers in terms of scope, time and/or even the
geographical locations
 In other words, a large number of approaches are
available for any single piece of research title;
 wherein the variations peculiar to each research title
must be taken into consideration while preparing the
research proposal or designing the RP.
 In fact there are different angles (perspectives) from
which any given research inquiry can be viewed &
reflected, just as the field social sciences dictate.
Dr Onsare Henry 02/25/2023 7
General guideline for developing Research Designs

 Factors taken into account while synthesizing & designing the

research proposal:
 Degree of formulation i.e extent to which research problem
has been crystallized dimensionally
 Mode of data collection i.e methods & tools to be adopted
 Topical scope & dimensions i.e breath & depth contextually
and content-wise
 Time dimensions i.e one-time or longitudinal
 Nature & type of study i.e descriptive or causal
 Research environment i.e field conditions conducive for data
collection
 Ability, capability / integrity of researcher to manipulate IVs
 Nature of relationships sought among variables
 Purpose of the study
Dr Onsare Henry 02/25/2023 8
 Cont … Concept & Meaning of RD

 Conceptually, RD is a logical & systematic plan prepared for directing a

given piece of research topic by clearly specifying:
 Central focus
 Nature of variables & relationships
 Need & justification to the study
 Significance & social relevance
 Research issues raised – research questions
 Objectives – general & specific
 Hypotheses – if necessary
 Methodology – approaches, strategies & techniques, methods & tools to
be adopted
 Delimitations (Scope & Dimensions)
 Geographical coverage
 Period / Time to be encompassed
 NB: the concept of RD is actually the research proposal itself

Dr Onsare Henry 02/25/2023 9

 Cont …
 Summary: In brief the research design or the research proposal
always starts with:
 Brief description: the general background description of the
research activity; &
 the situation under which the study was selected;
 Statement of the problem – by reflecting the issues raised.
 Objectives - aims & goals of the research-work; and
 Expected results or the expected outcomes (Hypotheses)
 In other words, the research design specifies or spells out in a
detailed manner the performance / operationalization capability
of the research activity i.e capability to achieve the well set-out
objectives
 For this purpose relevant activities must be identified well
in advance and listed in sequential-logical order i.e
formulation
Dr Onsare Henry 02/25/2023 10
 Types of Research Designs

 RD refers to the Overall typology, Approach and Strategy

that researchers adopted in the process of trying to
integrate the different
 components/dimensions of the inquiry in a more coherent
& logical way i.e into a coherent one in a logical way;
 thereby ensuring a comprehensive & effective way of
approaching or addressing the fundamental research
issues
 It constitutes the blueprint for the collection,
measurement and analysis of data
 Note: it’s the nature of the research problem that
determines the type of designs adopted & applied, not the
other way around!
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General Structure or Writing Style of RDs
 The purpose of a RD is to ensure that the evidences to be
obtained enables the researcher to effectively address the RP
logically & unambiguously
 In social sciences, obtaining info relevant to a research
problem generally entails or requires researchers to clearly
specify;
 the type of evidence (data) required;
 whether to formulate & test a theory (hypothesizing);
 whether the research operation (activity) is an evaluation or
impact assessment (based on the used action verbs);
 whether to accurately describe and/or analyze &explain the
problem relative to the observable phenomena variables in a
given environ;
 and/or the predictions about the future trends
Dr Onsare Henry 02/25/2023 12
 Cont …
 Bearing the above narration in mind, it’s been noticed that
many researchers make one common mistake i.e they begin
the research inquiry far too early;
 before actually critically articulating & thinking deeply or

thoughtfully about the type of info required to address the

major research issues raised
 Thus, without taking keen attention to the design issues much

before-hand (i.e prior planning);

 the overall research problem will not be adequately addressed;

and,
 any findings & conclusions drawn risks being weak &

unconvincing warranting total rejection as being bogus.

 There4 as a consequence, the overall validity of the inquiry

becomes totally undermined, dejected & thrown into disarray

Dr Onsare Henry 02/25/2023 13
 Cont …
 Normally, the length & complexity of describing RDs vary
considerably,
 but any well-conceived & developed RD will achieve the following:
 Reviews & synthesizes previously published & unpublished literature

associated with the problem;

 Identifies the research problem clearly & justifies its selection,

 esp. in relation to any valid alternative designs that could have been

used;
 Clearly & explicitly specifies & formulates hypotheses i.e based on the

research issues central to the research topic;

 Identifies & effectively describes the data sources necessary for an

adequate testing of the set hypotheses & explains how such data will
be obtained; and finally,
 Describes the methods of analysis to be applied in accepting or

rejecting the null hypotheses, thereby eliminating type-I & type-II

errors.
Dr Onsare Henry 02/25/2023 14
 Common Types of RDs in Social Science
X
 Remark: Bearing in mind the types of research discussed
earlier, the following are the common descriptions of RDs
 Causal Design - definition & Purpose

 A type of research used to measure the impact of a

specific change on the existing norms & assumptions

 A Causality study means understanding a phenomenon in

terms of certain conditional statements i.e where

hypotheses are raised
 Most social scientists seek causal explanations that

reflect testing of hypotheses

 Causal-effect relationships occurs when variation in one

variable, an IV, leads to or results, on average, in the

variation of another variable, the DV.
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 Cont …
 Conditions necessary for determining causality:
 Empirical association - a valid conclusion is

based on finding-out an association b2in the IVs

& DV
 Appropriate time order - to conclude that

causation was involved, one must see / observe

that cases were exposed to the variation in the IV
before variation in the DV
 Non spuriousness - a relationship b2in two

variables that is not due to variation in a third

variable i.e extraneous variable

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 Cont …
 Experimental Design - Definition & Purpose
 This is the blueprint of the procedure enabling researchers to have

control over all factors affecting the result in an experiment; and,

 by so doing, researchers attempt to determine/predict what may

occur
 Experimental RD is often used where

 there is time priority in a causal relationship (cause precedes effect);

 there is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead

to the same effect); and,

 where the magnitude of the correlation b2in variables is high / great
 A classic experimental design specifies an experimental group & the control group.
 The IV is administered to the experimental group and not to the control group, where both groups are
measured on the same DV
 Subsequent Experimental Designs use more groups & more measurements over longer periods
 True experimental designs must have/exhibit control, randomization & manipulation

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 Cont …
 Cross-sectional Design - definition & purpose
 Cross-sectional RDs have three distinctive features:
 No time dimension;
 Reliance is on existing differences rather than change following an
intervention strategy; and,
 Groups are selected based upon existing differences rather than
random allocation
 Cross-sectional design can only measure differences b2in or
amongst a variety of people/subjects/ phenomena rather than a
process of change
 Thus researchers using this design can only employ a relatively
passive approach for making causal inferences based upon the
findings
 NB: A cross-sectional design is fundamentally basic or descriptive.

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 Cont …
 Descriptive Design - definition & purpose
 Descriptive RDs help provide answers to the basic
research questions associated with a particular
research problem i.e who, what, when, where & how
 A descriptive study cannot conclusively ascertain
answers to the how, why, why not or what if questions
 Descriptive RD is adopted to obtain info concerning
the current status of the phenomena; &,
 can only describe "what exists" with respect to
variables or conditions in a given situation

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 Cont …
 Exploratory Design - Definition & purpose
 An exploratory RD is adopted & conducted on a research problem
 when there are few / no earlier studies to refer to / rely upon to predict an outcome
 The focus is on gaining insights & familiarity for later investigation; or,

 undertaken when research problems are in a preliminary stage of investigation

 Exploratory RDs are often used to establish an understanding of how best to proceed

in studying an issue; or,

 what methodology would effectively apply to gathering info on the subject-matter
 The goals of exploratory RD are intended to produce the following possible insights:
 Familiarity with basic details, settings and concerns
 Well-grounded picture of the situation being developed for investigation

 Generation of new ideas & assumptions

 Develop tentative theories or hypotheses

 Determine whether a study is feasible in the future

 Issues get refined for more systematic investigation & formulation of new research

questions
 Direction for future research and techniques get developed

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 Cont …
 Historical Design - definition & purpose
 The aim of a historical RD is to collect, verify &
synthesize evidences from the past to establish facts
that defend or uphold or refute an hypothesis
 It uses / employs secondary sources & a variety of
primary documentary evidences, such as, diaries,
official records, reports, archives, and non-textual info
[maps, pictures, audio & visual recordings]
 The scope & delimitation is that the sources must be
both authentic & valid

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 Cont …
 Longitudinal Design - Definition & purpose
 A longitudinal study follows the same sample over time and makes

repeated observations
 For instance, with longitudinal surveys, the same group of people is

interviewed at regular intervals;

 enabling researchers to track changes over time & to relate them to

variables that might explain why the changes occur

 Longitudinal RDs describe patterns of change and help establish the

direction & magnitude of causal relationships

 Measurements are taken on each variable over two or more distinct

time periods;
 which allows researchers to measure change in variables over time

 It’s a type of observational study sometimes referred to as a panel

study.
 NB: mostly not adopted by individual academic researchers in social

sciences.

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 Cont …
 Observational Design - definition & purpose
 This type of RD draws conclusions by comparing subjects against

a control group;
 esp. in cases where the researcher has control over the

experiment.
 There are two general types of observational designs – direct &

indirect.
 In direct observations, people know that the researcher is

watching them
 In indirect observations, unobtrusive measures involve any

method for studying behavior where individuals don’t know they

are being observed
 An observational study allows a useful insight into a phenomenon

and avoids the ethical & practical considerations / difficulties of

setting up a large and cumbersome research project

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 Cont …
 Case Study Design - definition & Purpose i.e circumstances
where applicable
 It’s an in-depth study of a particular research problem

rather than a sweeping survey or comprehensive

comparative inquiry
 It’s often used & adopted to narrow down broad fields of

research into one or a few easily researchable areas

 Case study RD is useful for testing whether a specific theory

ormodel actually applies to phenomena in the real-world

situations
 It’s a useful when not much is known about the issue or

phenomenon under inquiry;

 but becomes experimental once full descriptions are

achieved.
Dr Onsare Henry 02/25/2023 24
END …

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