The document discusses research design, which is defined as an overall plan for conducting scientific research. An effective research design outlines objectives, hypotheses, data collection procedures, analysis methods, and potential interpretations. It provides guidance for investigators to collect, analyze, and interpret empirical evidence to address the research problem. However, the design remains flexible and can be modified as new insights emerge. The key aspects of a research design include clearly specifying the research problem, approach, variables, sources and types of data, and intended generalizability.
The document discusses research design, which is defined as an overall plan for conducting scientific research. An effective research design outlines objectives, hypotheses, data collection procedures, analysis methods, and potential interpretations. It provides guidance for investigators to collect, analyze, and interpret empirical evidence to address the research problem. However, the design remains flexible and can be modified as new insights emerge. The key aspects of a research design include clearly specifying the research problem, approach, variables, sources and types of data, and intended generalizability.
The document discusses research design, which is defined as an overall plan for conducting scientific research. An effective research design outlines objectives, hypotheses, data collection procedures, analysis methods, and potential interpretations. It provides guidance for investigators to collect, analyze, and interpret empirical evidence to address the research problem. However, the design remains flexible and can be modified as new insights emerge. The key aspects of a research design include clearly specifying the research problem, approach, variables, sources and types of data, and intended generalizability.
The document discusses research design, which is defined as an overall plan for conducting scientific research. An effective research design outlines objectives, hypotheses, data collection procedures, analysis methods, and potential interpretations. It provides guidance for investigators to collect, analyze, and interpret empirical evidence to address the research problem. However, the design remains flexible and can be modified as new insights emerge. The key aspects of a research design include clearly specifying the research problem, approach, variables, sources and types of data, and intended generalizability.
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Research Design (RD)
The RD is a complex concept to define in short-cut clear
terms Just like in the research problem formulation, the prior planning (designing) is essential before any actual research Researchers should apply mind (logic) as to the way in which the research inquiry should proceed in order to attain the intended objectives The plan that precedes the actual execution of the research activity is what is referred to as the RD However, isn’t an exact & specific plan to be followed strictly without deviation like the building blueprint; but rather a series of guide-posts that keeps the research going through in the right direction Dr Onsare Henry 02/25/2023 1 Cont … Normally the researchers are always guided by the common maxim that ‘while discovery cannot be pre-planned, the actual work must i.e if the research activity has to end-up in the Discovery of Something NEW’. Thus a RD is an overall plan of any scientific research activity; which encompasses among other things, the data collection procedures, measurement tools, analysis & the possible interpretations It’s an outline of what the researcher intends to accomplish - right from conception of the idea, area identification & framing of topic, issues raised, hypotheses formulation, data collection procedure, data analysis & possible interpretations, findings, conclusions, recommendations and Reporting
Dr Onsare Henry 02/25/2023 2
Cont … The RDs constitute the blueprint for the collection, analysis & measurement of data It’s a device which clearly specifies the research problem,
suggests the approach & the type of analytical work thru’ the appropriate Methods & Tools for data collection and foresees the final outcome (hypothesizing) In other words it’s a program that guides investigators in the
process of collecting, analyzing & interpreting data
It reflects an outline of the structure & the process of the
research activity. Thus, a well-schemed RD expresses both the structure & the
plan of inquiry used to obtain the required empirical evidences
A structure is a framework, an organized chart / configuration
reflecting the kind of relations among variables i.e the
conceptual framework. Dr Onsare Henry 02/25/2023 3 Essentials of good Research Design X It’s a plan that specifies objectives & hypotheses being tested An outline that specifies sources & types of
info relevant to research issues
A blueprint specifying the methods for
gathering & analyzing data
It’s a plan that defines the “domain of
generalizing” i.e whether obtained info can
be generalized to a larger population i.e under similar or different situations
Dr Onsare Henry 02/25/2023 4
Nature of Research Design
The RD is a tentative plan which undergoes modification
as the study progresses and as circumstances demand i.e as the new aspects, new conditions, new interactions emerge & insights deepen. For instance, the scope may be narrowed down, when its discovered that certain kinds of data are unavailable; sampling methods may be modified from “random sampling with PPS to simple random sampling” if the list of units within a particular size is not readily available
Dr Onsare Henry 02/25/2023 5
Cont … The research may not be as extensive & intensive as earlier preferred, Thus, it has to be narrowed down based upon the unavailability of data & respondents’ uncooperativeness Resources: it has to be kept within researcher’s own manageable limits i.e mental ability & cabability, researcher’s competence to grasp the research implications, time & funds available for the purpose, etc. Thus, the RDs “represents compromises dictated by many practical considerations; but without compromising the initially intended central focus of the research inquiry. Hence, the RD is a complicated & time-consuming device to prepare in one seating Dr Onsare Henry 02/25/2023 6 Cont … Moreover there’s no single research design for a particular inquiry in the strict sense of the term; bcoz the RDs differ significantly with different researchers in terms of scope, time and/or even the geographical locations In other words, a large number of approaches are available for any single piece of research title; wherein the variations peculiar to each research title must be taken into consideration while preparing the research proposal or designing the RP. In fact there are different angles (perspectives) from which any given research inquiry can be viewed & reflected, just as the field social sciences dictate. Dr Onsare Henry 02/25/2023 7 General guideline for developing Research Designs
Factors taken into account while synthesizing & designing the
research proposal: Degree of formulation i.e extent to which research problem has been crystallized dimensionally Mode of data collection i.e methods & tools to be adopted Topical scope & dimensions i.e breath & depth contextually and content-wise Time dimensions i.e one-time or longitudinal Nature & type of study i.e descriptive or causal Research environment i.e field conditions conducive for data collection Ability, capability / integrity of researcher to manipulate IVs Nature of relationships sought among variables Purpose of the study Dr Onsare Henry 02/25/2023 8 Cont … Concept & Meaning of RD
Conceptually, RD is a logical & systematic plan prepared for directing a
given piece of research topic by clearly specifying: Central focus Nature of variables & relationships Need & justification to the study Significance & social relevance Research issues raised – research questions Objectives – general & specific Hypotheses – if necessary Methodology – approaches, strategies & techniques, methods & tools to be adopted Delimitations (Scope & Dimensions) Geographical coverage Period / Time to be encompassed NB: the concept of RD is actually the research proposal itself
Dr Onsare Henry 02/25/2023 9
Cont … Summary: In brief the research design or the research proposal always starts with: Brief description: the general background description of the research activity; & the situation under which the study was selected; Statement of the problem – by reflecting the issues raised. Objectives - aims & goals of the research-work; and Expected results or the expected outcomes (Hypotheses) In other words, the research design specifies or spells out in a detailed manner the performance / operationalization capability of the research activity i.e capability to achieve the well set-out objectives For this purpose relevant activities must be identified well in advance and listed in sequential-logical order i.e formulation Dr Onsare Henry 02/25/2023 10 Types of Research Designs
RD refers to the Overall typology, Approach and Strategy
that researchers adopted in the process of trying to integrate the different components/dimensions of the inquiry in a more coherent & logical way i.e into a coherent one in a logical way; thereby ensuring a comprehensive & effective way of approaching or addressing the fundamental research issues It constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data Note: it’s the nature of the research problem that determines the type of designs adopted & applied, not the other way around! Dr Onsare Henry 02/25/2023 11 General Structure or Writing Style of RDs The purpose of a RD is to ensure that the evidences to be obtained enables the researcher to effectively address the RP logically & unambiguously In social sciences, obtaining info relevant to a research problem generally entails or requires researchers to clearly specify; the type of evidence (data) required; whether to formulate & test a theory (hypothesizing); whether the research operation (activity) is an evaluation or impact assessment (based on the used action verbs); whether to accurately describe and/or analyze &explain the problem relative to the observable phenomena variables in a given environ; and/or the predictions about the future trends Dr Onsare Henry 02/25/2023 12 Cont … Bearing the above narration in mind, it’s been noticed that many researchers make one common mistake i.e they begin the research inquiry far too early; before actually critically articulating & thinking deeply or
thoughtfully about the type of info required to address the
major research issues raised Thus, without taking keen attention to the design issues much
before-hand (i.e prior planning);
the overall research problem will not be adequately addressed;
and, any findings & conclusions drawn risks being weak &
unconvincing warranting total rejection as being bogus.
There4 as a consequence, the overall validity of the inquiry
becomes totally undermined, dejected & thrown into disarray
Dr Onsare Henry 02/25/2023 13 Cont … Normally, the length & complexity of describing RDs vary considerably, but any well-conceived & developed RD will achieve the following: Reviews & synthesizes previously published & unpublished literature
associated with the problem;
Identifies the research problem clearly & justifies its selection,
esp. in relation to any valid alternative designs that could have been
used; Clearly & explicitly specifies & formulates hypotheses i.e based on the
research issues central to the research topic;
Identifies & effectively describes the data sources necessary for an
adequate testing of the set hypotheses & explains how such data will be obtained; and finally, Describes the methods of analysis to be applied in accepting or
rejecting the null hypotheses, thereby eliminating type-I & type-II
errors. Dr Onsare Henry 02/25/2023 14 Common Types of RDs in Social Science X Remark: Bearing in mind the types of research discussed earlier, the following are the common descriptions of RDs Causal Design - definition & Purpose
A type of research used to measure the impact of a
specific change on the existing norms & assumptions
A Causality study means understanding a phenomenon in
terms of certain conditional statements i.e where
hypotheses are raised Most social scientists seek causal explanations that
reflect testing of hypotheses
Causal-effect relationships occurs when variation in one
variable, an IV, leads to or results, on average, in the
variation of another variable, the DV. Dr Onsare Henry 02/25/2023 15 Cont … Conditions necessary for determining causality: Empirical association - a valid conclusion is
based on finding-out an association b2in the IVs
& DV Appropriate time order - to conclude that
causation was involved, one must see / observe
that cases were exposed to the variation in the IV before variation in the DV Non spuriousness - a relationship b2in two
variables that is not due to variation in a third
variable i.e extraneous variable
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Cont … Experimental Design - Definition & Purpose This is the blueprint of the procedure enabling researchers to have
control over all factors affecting the result in an experiment; and,
by so doing, researchers attempt to determine/predict what may
occur Experimental RD is often used where
there is time priority in a causal relationship (cause precedes effect);
there is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead
to the same effect); and,
where the magnitude of the correlation b2in variables is high / great A classic experimental design specifies an experimental group & the control group. The IV is administered to the experimental group and not to the control group, where both groups are measured on the same DV Subsequent Experimental Designs use more groups & more measurements over longer periods True experimental designs must have/exhibit control, randomization & manipulation
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Cont … Cross-sectional Design - definition & purpose Cross-sectional RDs have three distinctive features: No time dimension; Reliance is on existing differences rather than change following an intervention strategy; and, Groups are selected based upon existing differences rather than random allocation Cross-sectional design can only measure differences b2in or amongst a variety of people/subjects/ phenomena rather than a process of change Thus researchers using this design can only employ a relatively passive approach for making causal inferences based upon the findings NB: A cross-sectional design is fundamentally basic or descriptive.
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Cont … Descriptive Design - definition & purpose Descriptive RDs help provide answers to the basic research questions associated with a particular research problem i.e who, what, when, where & how A descriptive study cannot conclusively ascertain answers to the how, why, why not or what if questions Descriptive RD is adopted to obtain info concerning the current status of the phenomena; &, can only describe "what exists" with respect to variables or conditions in a given situation
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Cont … Exploratory Design - Definition & purpose An exploratory RD is adopted & conducted on a research problem when there are few / no earlier studies to refer to / rely upon to predict an outcome The focus is on gaining insights & familiarity for later investigation; or,
undertaken when research problems are in a preliminary stage of investigation
Exploratory RDs are often used to establish an understanding of how best to proceed
in studying an issue; or,
what methodology would effectively apply to gathering info on the subject-matter The goals of exploratory RD are intended to produce the following possible insights: Familiarity with basic details, settings and concerns Well-grounded picture of the situation being developed for investigation
Generation of new ideas & assumptions
Develop tentative theories or hypotheses
Determine whether a study is feasible in the future
Issues get refined for more systematic investigation & formulation of new research
questions Direction for future research and techniques get developed
Dr Onsare Henry 02/25/2023 20
Cont … Historical Design - definition & purpose The aim of a historical RD is to collect, verify & synthesize evidences from the past to establish facts that defend or uphold or refute an hypothesis It uses / employs secondary sources & a variety of primary documentary evidences, such as, diaries, official records, reports, archives, and non-textual info [maps, pictures, audio & visual recordings] The scope & delimitation is that the sources must be both authentic & valid
Dr Onsare Henry 02/25/2023 21
Cont … Longitudinal Design - Definition & purpose A longitudinal study follows the same sample over time and makes
repeated observations For instance, with longitudinal surveys, the same group of people is
interviewed at regular intervals;
enabling researchers to track changes over time & to relate them to
variables that might explain why the changes occur
Longitudinal RDs describe patterns of change and help establish the
direction & magnitude of causal relationships
Measurements are taken on each variable over two or more distinct
time periods; which allows researchers to measure change in variables over time
It’s a type of observational study sometimes referred to as a panel
study. NB: mostly not adopted by individual academic researchers in social
sciences.
Dr Onsare Henry 02/25/2023 22
Cont … Observational Design - definition & purpose This type of RD draws conclusions by comparing subjects against
a control group; esp. in cases where the researcher has control over the
experiment. There are two general types of observational designs – direct &
indirect. In direct observations, people know that the researcher is
watching them In indirect observations, unobtrusive measures involve any
method for studying behavior where individuals don’t know they
are being observed An observational study allows a useful insight into a phenomenon
and avoids the ethical & practical considerations / difficulties of
setting up a large and cumbersome research project
Dr Onsare Henry 02/25/2023 23
Cont … Case Study Design - definition & Purpose i.e circumstances where applicable It’s an in-depth study of a particular research problem
rather than a sweeping survey or comprehensive
comparative inquiry It’s often used & adopted to narrow down broad fields of
research into one or a few easily researchable areas
Case study RD is useful for testing whether a specific theory
ormodel actually applies to phenomena in the real-world
situations It’s a useful when not much is known about the issue or
phenomenon under inquiry;
but becomes experimental once full descriptions are
