Methods of Educational Research

JUDITH S. RABACAL, LPT,MAED,Ph.D.

Associate Professor V
Director, Research and Development
Northern Negros State College of Science and Technology
 Course Overview

▸ Course Code: MAEDF1 201 ▸ Course Description: The course introduces the
▸ Course Title: Quantitative Research graduate students to the world of research by
Methods providing them with working knowledge of the
concepts and methods in the conceptualization and
▸ Course Credit: 3 units conduct of research. It covers topics on the nature of
▸ A.Y.: First Semester 2022-2023 research, the research problem, related literature,
▸ research methodology, sampling, instrumentation,
Class Schedule: September 10,11,
data collection, data presentation, data analysis and
17, 18, 24 & 25, 2022
interpretation, writing the summary, conclusions and
recommendations, the research report and evaluating
the research report.

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 Course Overview

▸ General Objectives: ▸ Final Course Output: A Full-Blown

▸ By the end of the course, the Research Proposal
graduate students will be able to: ▸ Other Requirements and Assessment:
▸ 1. Understand the meaning, ▸ 1. Individual/Group Presentation
nature and dynamics of research; ▸ 2. Examination
▸ 2. Master the basic concepts in ▸ 3. Class Attendance
research;
▸ 3. Master the techniques in
writing the sections of a research
paper; and
▸ 4. Apprehend and appreciate the
culture of research.

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 Course Outline and Time Frame
Topics Date

Introduction and Basic Concepts in Research September 10, 2022

*Class Orientation
*The Meaning of Research
*Characteristics of Research
*Qualities of a Good Researcher
*Purposes of Research
*Types of Educational Research
*The Hypothesis
*Sampling
*Population and Sample
*Hindrances Encountered in Research

Assessment/ Activity #1 September 11, 2022

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 Course Outline and Time Frame

Topics Date

The Research Problem September 17, 2022

*Sources of Research Problems
*Characteristics of Good Research Questions
*Selecting a Research Problem
*Evaluating a Research Problem
*How to Write the Statement of a Problem in a Thesis
*Research Hypothesis and Null Hypothesis
*Theoretical and Conceptual Framework
*Scope and Limitation of the Study
*Significance of the Study
*Definition of Terms
Assessment/ Activity #2 September 18, 2022

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 Course Outline and Time Frame
Topics Date
Related Literature September 24, 2022
*Functions of the Review of Related Literature *The Research Instruments
*Characteristics *Validity of the Research
Instruments
*Sources *Reliability of the Research
Instruments
*Guidelines in Writing the Related Literature *Data Gathering Procedures
Research Methodology *Statistical Analysis of Data
*Research Design *Data Gathering Procedures
*Descriptive Research *Statistical Analysis of Data
*Correlational Research
*Causal-Comparative Research
*Experimental Research
*Quasi-Experimental Research
*Qualitative Research
*Respondents of the Study
*Target Population
*Sampling
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 Course Outline and Time Frame

Topics Date
Data Presentation, Analyses and Interpretation of Data September 24, 2022
 Presentation of Data Definition
 Ways of Presenting Data
 Data Analysis
 Descriptive Data Analysis
 Inferential Data Analysis
 Computer Data Analysis
 Interpretation of Data
 Level of Significance
 Rejection or Non Rejection of Null Hypothesis

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 Course Outline and Time Frame

Writing the Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations September 24, 2022

 Guidelines in Writing the Summary
 Guidelines in Writing the Conclusions
 Guidelines in Writing the Recommendations
The Research Report
 Format of a Thesis/Dissertation
September 25, 2022
 Research Proposal Presentation

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 The Meaning of
Research
▸ Longman Dictionary of contemporary English
.(1997) Research as a serious study of a
subject that is intended to discover new facts
or test ideas.

▸ According to The Merriam- (Webster online

Dictionary). A studious inquiry or
examination, especially; investigation or
experimentation aimed at the discovery and
interpretation of facts, revision of accepted
theories or law in the light of new facts or
practical application of such new or revised
theories or law.

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 The Meaning of Research

According to Waltz and Bansell (1981). Research is a systematic, formal, rigorous and precise
process employed to gain solutions to problems or to discover and interpret new facts and
relationships.

According to Kothari (2006). Research is a pursuit of trust with the help of study, observation,
comparison and experiment, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic
method of finding solutions to a problem.

According to Payton (1979). Research is the process of looking for a specific question in an
organized, objective, reliable way.

Kerlinger (1873). Research is a systematic controlled, empirical and critical investigation of

hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena.

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 Research is conducted to...

▸ Evaluate the validity of a hypothesis or an interpretive

framework.
▸ To assemble a body of substantive knowledge and findings
for sharing them in appropriate manners.
▸ To help generate questions for further inquiries.

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 Characteristics of Research
▸1. Empirical – research is based on direct experience or observation by the researcher.

▸2. Logical – research is based on valid procedures and principles.

▸3. Cyclical – research starts with a problem and ends with a problem.

▸4. Analytical – research utilizes proven analytical procedures in gathering data, whether historical,
descriptive, experimental, and case study.

▸5. Critical – research exhibits careful and precise judgment.

▸6. Methodical – research is conducted in a methodical manner without bias using systematic method and
procedures.

▸7. Replicability – research design and procedures are repeated to enable the researcher to arrive at valid
and conclusive results.
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 Qualities of a Good Researcher

1. Intellectual Curiosity – researcher undertakes deep thinking

and inquiry of the things, problems, and situations around him.
2. Prudence – researcher is careful to conduct his study at the
right time and at the right place wisely, efficiently, and
economically.
3. Healthy Criticism – the researcher is always doubtful as to
the truthfulness of the results.
4. Intellectual Honesty – researcher is honest to collect or
gather the data or facts in order to arrive at honest results.
5. Intellectual creativity – a resourceful investigator always
creates new researches.

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 Purposes of Research

Although research can take many forms, there

are three main purposes of research:
1.Exploratory: Exploratory research is the first
research to be conducted around a problem that
has not yet been clearly defined.

Exploration research therefore aims to gain a

better understanding of the exact nature of the
problem and not to provide a conclusive answer
to the problem itself. This enables us to conduct
more in-depth research later on.

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 Purposes of Research

2.Descriptive: Descriptive research expands knowledge of a research

problem or phenomenon by describing it according to its
characteristics and population. Descriptive research focuses on the
‘how’ and ‘what’, but not on the ‘why’.

3.Explanatory: Explanatory research, also referred to as casual

research, is conducted to determine how variables interact, i.e. to
identify cause-and-effect relationships. Explanatory research deals
with the ‘why’ of research questions and is therefore often based on
experiments.

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 Characteristics of Research

There are 8 core characteristics that all research projects should have. These are:

1. Empirical – based on proven scientific methods derived from real-life

observations and experiments.

2. Logical – follows sequential procedures based on valid principles.

3. Cyclic – research begins with a question and ends with a question, i.e.
research should lead to a new line of questioning.

4. Controlled – vigorous measures put into place to keep all variables constant,
except those under investigation.

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 Characteristics of Research
5. Hypothesis-based – the research design generates data that sufficiently
meets the research objectives and can prove or disprove the hypothesis. It
makes the research study repeatable and gives credibility to the results.

6. Analytical – data is generated, recorded and analyzed using proven

techniques to ensure high accuracy and repeatability while minimizing
potential errors and anomalies.

7. Objective – sound judgment is used by the researcher to ensure that the

research findings are valid.

8. Statistical treatment – statistical treatment is used to transform the

available data into something more meaningful from which knowledge can
be gained.

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 Types of Educational Research

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 According to its Purpose

Theoretical Research
Theoretical research, also referred to as pure or basic research, focuses on generating
knowledge, regardless of its practical application.

Here, data collection is used to generate new general concepts for a better understanding
of a particular field or to answer a theoretical research question.

Applied Research

Here, the goal is to find strategies that can be used to address a specific research
problem. Applied research draws on theory to generate practical scientific knowledge, and
its use is very common in STEM fields such as engineering, computer science and medicine.

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 According to your Depth of Scope

Exploratory Research
Exploratory research is used for the preliminary investigation of a subject that is not
yet well understood or sufficiently researched. It serves to establish a frame of reference and a
hypothesis from which an in-depth study can be developed that will enable conclusive results
to be generated.

Descriptive Research

The primary objective of descriptive research is to define the characteristics of a particular

phenomenon without necessarily investigating the causes that produce it.

In this type of research, the researcher must take particular care not to intervene in the
observed object or phenomenon, as its behavior may change if an external factor is involved.

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 According to your Depth of Scope

Explanatory Research
Explanatory research is the most common type of research method and is responsible for
establishing cause-and-effect relationships that allow generalisations to be extended to similar
realities. It is closely related to descriptive research, although it provides additional information
about the observed object and its interactions with the environment.

Correlational Research
The purpose of this type of scientific research is to identify the relationship between two or
more variables. A correlational study aims to determine whether a variable changes, how much the
other elements of the observed system change.

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 According to the Type of Data Used

Qualitative Research
Qualitative methods are often used in the social sciences to collect, compare and
interpret information, has a linguistic-semiotic basis and is used in techniques such as
discourse analysis, interviews, surveys, records and participant observations.

Quantitative Research
Quantitative research study delves into a phenomena through quantitative data
collection and using mathematical, statistical and computer-aided tools to measure
them. This allows generalized conclusions to be projected over time.

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 According to the Degree of Manipulation of
Variables
Experimental Research
It is about designing or replicating a phenomenon whose variables are
manipulated under strictly controlled conditions in order to identify or discover its
effect on another independent variable or object. The phenomenon to be studied is
measured through study and control groups, and according to the guidelines of the
scientific method.

Non-Experimental Research
Also known as an observational study, it focuses on the analysis of a phenomenon in
its natural context. As such, the researcher does not intervene directly, but limits their
involvement to measuring the variables required for the study. Due to its observational
nature, it is often used in descriptive research.

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 According to the Degree of Manipulation of
Variables

Quasi-Experimental Research
It controls only some variables of the phenomenon under investigation and is
therefore not entirely experimental. In this case, the study and the focus group cannot be
randomly selected, but are chosen from existing groups or populations. This is to ensure the
collected data is relevant and that the knowledge, perspectives and opinions of the
population can be incorporated into the study.

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 According to the Type of Inference

Deductive Investigation
In this type of research, reality is explained by general laws that point to certain conclusions;
conclusions are expected to be part of the premise of the research problem and considered correct
if the premise is valid and the inductive method is applied correctly.

Inductive Research
In this type of research, knowledge is generated from an observation to achieve a
generalization. It is based on the collection of specific data to develop new theories.

Hypothetical-Deductive Investigation
It is based on observing reality to make a hypothesis, then use deduction to obtain a
conclusion and finally verify or reject it through experience.

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 According to the Time in Which it is
Carried Out
Longitudinal Study (also referred to as Diachronic Research)
It is the monitoring of the same event, individual or group over a defined period of time.
It aims to track changes in a number of variables and see how they evolve over time. It is
often used in medical, psychological and social areas.
For example, a cohort study that analyses changes in a particular indigenous population
over a period of 15 years.

Cross-Sectional Study (also referred to as Synchronous Research)

Cross-sectional research design is used to observe phenomena, an individual or a group
of research subjects at a given time.

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 According to The Sources of Information

Primary Research
This fundamental research type is defined by the fact that the data is collected
directly from the source, that is, it consists of primary, first-hand information.

Secondary research
Unlike primary research, secondary research is developed with information from
secondary sources, which are generally based on scientific literature and other documents
compiled by another researcher.

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 According to How the Data is Obtained
Documentary (cabinet)
Documentary research, or secondary sources, is based on a systematic review of existing sources of
information on a particular subject. This type of scientific research is commonly used when
undertaking literature reviews or producing a case study.

Field
Field research study involves the direct collection of information at the location where the observed
phenomenon occurs.

From Laboratory
Laboratory research is carried out in a controlled environment in order to isolate a dependent variable
and establish its relationship with other variables through scientific methods.

Mixed-Method: Documentary, Field and/or Laboratory

Mixed research methodologies combine results from both secondary (documentary) sources and
primary sources through field or laboratory research.
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 The Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a statement that introduces a research

question and proposes an expected result. It is an integral
part of the scientific method that forms the basis of scientific
experiments.

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 Types of Research Hypothesis

Research hypothesis can be classified into seven categories as stated below:

1. Simple Hypothesis
It predicts the relationship between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable.

2. Complex Hypothesis
It predicts the relationship between two or more independent and dependent variables.

3. Directional Hypothesis
It specifies the expected direction to be followed to determine the relationship between variables, and
is derived from theory. Furthermore, it implies researcher’s intellectual commitment to a particular
outcome.

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 Types of Research Hypothesis
4. Non-directional Hypothesis
It does not predict the exact direction or nature of the relationship between the two variables. Non-
directional hypothesis is used when there is no theory involved or when findings contradict
previous research.
5. Associative and Causal Hypothesis
Associative hypothesis defines interdependency between variables. A change in one variable
results in the change of the other variable. On the other hand, causal hypothesis proposes an effect
on the dependent due to manipulation of the independent variable.
6. Null Hypothesis
It states a negative statement to support the researcher’s findings that there is no relationship
between two variables.
7. Alternative Hypothesis
It states that there is a relationship between the two variables of the study and that the results are
significant to the research topic.

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 Hindrances Encountered in Research

Lack of Scientific Training:

The research methodology is not systematic. Many researchers undertake research work without having
actual knowledge of the research methods. Even the guides do not have a thorough knowledge of the various
methodologies. Before undertaking research projects, researchers should be well equipped with all the
methodological aspects.

Lack of communication with the supervisor: A university professor is a busy person. It is important to
have guidance on a research project. Poor communication gets on the way of the progress of the research. It
is important to communicate with the supervisor to clarify the doubts regarding the research topic, to know
what the supervisor expects from you and to learn more about your research topic.

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 Hindrances Encountered in Research
A quantity of literature: It can be difficult to deal with the quantity of literature that one might
have accessed. The literature review is iterative. This involves managing the literature, accessing
data that supports the framework of the research, identifying keywords and alternative keywords,
as well as constantly looking for new sources.

Implementing quality of writing within the literature review: A literature review has to go
beyond being a series of references and citations. You need to interpret the literature and be able
to position it within the context of your study. This requires careful and measured interpretation
and writing in which you synthesize and bring together the materials that you have read.

Insufficient data: Insufficiency of data is a potential problem. Most of the business

establishments are of the opinion that researchers may misuse the data provided by them. This
affects the purpose of research studies for which that particular data may be of utmost
importance.

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 Hindrances Encountered in Research

Lack of confidence: Lack of confidence is one of the most common problems among researchers.
Researchers with low self-esteem feel less motivated thereby affecting the quality of the work.

Concern that your focus is either still too broad or too narrow: This concern is inevitable. Be
prepared to adapt your research as you look through the literature. This might require you to either
increase its focus or narrow down so that the research is manageable. A broad focus for research
might be narrowed down by adding an appropriate context or by looking for another variable
within the research question or by focusing upon a theoretical viewpoint.

Library management: Library management and functioning is not satisfactory in many

Universities; A lot of time and energy is spent on tracing appropriate books, journals, reports etc.
Also, many of the libraries are not able to get copies of new reports and other publications on time.

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