ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

(6CS4-05)

Unit V
Introduction To Natural Language Processing
DIFFERENT ISSUE
INVOLVED IN NLP
 INTRODUCTION
Artificial intelligence has become part of our everyday lives –
Alexa and Siri, text and email autocorrect, customer service
chatbots. They all use machine learning algorithms and 
Natural Language Processing (NLP) to process, “understand”,
and respond to human language, both written and spoken.
Language Processing limitations and problems:

•Contextual words and phrases and homonyms

•Synonyms
•Irony and sarcasm
•Ambiguity
•Errors in text or speech
•Colloquialisms and slang
•Domain-specific language
•Low-resource languages
•Lack of research and development
Contextual words and phrases and homonyms

The same words and phrases can have different meanings according the context of a sentence and
many words – especially in English – have the exact same pronunciation but totally different
meanings.
For example:
I ran to the store because we ran out of milk.
Can I run something past you real quick?
The house is looking really run down.
These are easy for humans to understand because we read the context of the sentence and we
understand all of the different definitions. And, while NLP language models may have learned all of
the definitions, differentiating between them in context can present problems.
Homonyms – two or more words that are pronounced the same but have different definitions – can be
problematic for question answering and speech-to-text applications because they aren’t written in text
form. Usage of their and there, for example, is even a common problem for humans.
Synonyms

Synonyms can lead to issues similar to contextual understanding because we

use many different words to express the same idea. Furthermore, some of
these words may convey exactly the same meaning, while some may be
levels of complexity (small, little, tiny, minute) and different people use
synonyms to denote slightly different meanings within their personal
vocabulary.
So, for building NLP systems, it’s important to include all of a word’s
possible meanings and all possible synonyms. Text analysis models may still
occasionally make mistakes, but the more relevant training data they receive,
the better they will be able to understand synonyms.
Irony and sarcasm

Irony and sarcasm present problems for machine learning models

because they generally use words and phrases that, strictly by
definition, may be positive or negative, but actually connote the
opposite.
Models can be trained with certain cues that frequently accompany
ironic or sarcastic phrases, like “yeah right,” “whatever,” etc., and 
word embeddings (where words that have the same meaning have
a similar representation), but it’s still a tricky process.
Ambiguity

Ambiguity in NLP refers to sentences and phrases that potentially have two or more possible
interpretations.
Lexical ambiguity: a word that could be used as a verb, noun, or adjective.
Semantic ambiguity: the interpretation of a sentence in context. For example: I saw the boy
on the beach with my binoculars. This could mean that I saw a boy through my binoculars
or the boy had my binoculars with him
Syntactic ambiguity: In the sentence above, this is what creates the confusion of meaning.
The phrase with my binoculars could modify the verb, “saw,” or the noun, “boy.”
Even for humans this sentence alone is difficult to interpret without the context of
surrounding text. POS (part of speech) tagging is one NLP solution that can help solve the
problem, somewhat.
Errors in text and speech

Misspelled or misused words can create problems for text

analysis. Autocorrect and grammar correction applications can
handle common mistakes, but don’t always understand the
writer’s intention.
With spoken language, mispronunciations, different accents,
stutters, etc., can be difficult for a machine to understand.
However, as language databases grow and smart assistants are
trained by their individual users, these issues can be minimized.
Colloquialisms and slang

Informal phrases, expressions, idioms, and culture-specific lingo

present a number of problems for NLP – especially for models
intended for broad use. Because as formal language, colloquialisms
may have no “dictionary definition” at all, and these expressions may
even have different meanings in different geographic areas.
Furthermore, cultural slang is constantly morphing and expanding, so
new words pop up every day.
This is where training and regularly updating custom models can be
helpful, although it oftentimes requires quite a lot of data.
Domain-specific language

Different businesses and industries often use very

different language. An NLP processing model needed for
healthcare, for example, would be very different than one
used to process legal documents. These days, however,
there are a number of analysis tools trained for specific
fields, but extremely niche industries may need to build or
train their own models.
Low-resource languages

AI machine learning NLP applications have been largely built for the most common,
widely used languages. And it’s downright amazing at how accurate translation
systems have become. However, many languages, especially those spoken by
people with less access to technology often go overlooked and under processed. For
example, by some estimations, (depending on language vs. dialect) there are over 
3,000 languages in Africa, alone. There simply isn’t very much data on many of
these languages.
However, new techniques, like multilingual transformers (using Google’s BERT
“Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers”) and 
multilingual sentence embeddings aim to identify and leverage universal similarities
that exist between languages.
Lack of research and development

Machine learning requires A LOT of data to function to its outer limits –

billions of pieces of training data. The more data NLP models are trained on,
the smarter they become. That said, data (and human language!) is only
growing by the day, as are new machine learning techniques and custom
algorithms. All of the problems above will require more research and new
techniques in order to improve on them.
Advanced practices like artificial neural networks and deep learning allow a
multitude of NLP techniques, algorithms, and models to work progressively,
much like the human mind does. As they grow and strengthen, we may have
solutions to some of these challenges in the near future.
Conclusion

While Natural Language Processing has its limitations, it still

offers huge and wide-ranging benefits to any business. And
with new techniques and new technology cropping up every
day, many of these barriers will be broken through in the
coming years.
NLP machine learning can be put to work to analyze massive
amounts of text in real time for previously unattainable
insights.
NATURAL LANGUAGE
PROCESSING
INTRODUCTION
•Natural Language Processing (NLP) refers to AI method of communicating
with an intelligent systems using a natural language such as English.

•Processing of Natural Language is required when you want an intelligent

system like robot to perform as per your instructions, when you want to hear
decision from a dialogue based clinical expert system, etc.
•The field of NLP involves making computers to perform useful tasks with
the natural languages humans use. The input and output of an NLP system
can be −
Speech
Written Text
Components of NLP

There are two components of NLP as given −

Natural Language Understanding (NLU)
Natural Language Generation (NLG)
Natural Language Understanding (NLU)

Understanding involves the following tasks −

Mapping the given input in natural language into useful
representations.
Analyzing different aspects of the language.
Natural Language Generation (NLG)
It is the process of producing meaningful phrases and sentences in
the form of natural language from some internal representation.
It involves −
Text planning − It includes retrieving the relevant content from
knowledge base.
Sentence planning − It includes choosing required words,
forming meaningful phrases, setting tone of the sentence.
Text Realization − It is mapping sentence plan into sentence
structure.
The NLU is harder than NLG.
Difficulties in NLU

NL has an extremely rich form and structure.

It is very ambiguous. There can be different levels of ambiguity −
Lexical ambiguity − It is at very primitive level such as word-level.
For example, treating the word “board” as noun or verb?
Syntax Level ambiguity − A sentence can be parsed in different ways.
For example, “He lifted the beetle with red cap.” − Did he use cap to lift the beetle or he
lifted a beetle that had red cap?
Referential ambiguity − Referring to something using pronouns. For example, Rima
went to Gauri. She said, “I am tired.” − Exactly who is tired?
One input can mean different meanings.
Many inputs can mean the same thing.
NLP Terminology

Phonology − It is study of organizing sound systematically.

Morphology − It is a study of construction of words from primitive meaningful units.
Morpheme − It is primitive unit of meaning in a language.
Syntax − It refers to arranging words to make a sentence. It also involves determining the
structural role of words in the sentence and in phrases.
Semantics − It is concerned with the meaning of words and how to combine words into
meaningful phrases and sentences.
Pragmatics − It deals with using and understanding sentences in different situations and how
the interpretation of the sentence is affected.
Discourse − It deals with how the immediately preceding sentence can affect the interpretation
of the next sentence.
World Knowledge − It includes the general knowledge about the world.
Steps in NLP

There are general five steps −

1. Lexical Analysis
2. Syntactic Analysis (Parsing)
3. Semantic Analysis
4. Discourse Integration
5. Pragmatic Analysis
Ambiguity and Uncertainty in Language

Ambiguity, generally used in natural language processing,

can be referred as the ability of being understood in more
than one way. In simple terms, we can say that ambiguity
is the capability of being understood in more than one
way. Natural language is very ambiguous. NLP has the
following types of ambiguities −
Lexical Ambiguity
The ambiguity of a single word is called lexical ambiguity. For example, treating the word silver as a noun, an adjective,
or a verb.
Syntactic Ambiguity
This kind of ambiguity occurs when a sentence is parsed in different ways. For example, the sentence “The man saw the
girl with the telescope”. It is ambiguous whether the man saw the girl carrying a telescope or he saw her through his
telescope.
Semantic Ambiguity
This kind of ambiguity occurs when the meaning of the words themselves can be misinterpreted. In other words,
semantic ambiguity happens when a sentence contains an ambiguous word or phrase. For example, the sentence “The car
hit the pole while it was moving” is having semantic ambiguity because the interpretations can be “The car, while
moving, hit the pole” and “The car hit the pole while the pole was moving”.
Anaphoric Ambiguity
This kind of ambiguity arises due to the use of anaphora entities in discourse. For example, the horse ran up the hill. It
was very steep. It soon got tired. Here, the anaphoric reference of “it” in two situations cause ambiguity.
Pragmatic ambiguity
Such kind of ambiguity refers to the situation where the context of a phrase gives it multiple interpretations. In simple
words, we can say that pragmatic ambiguity arises when the statement is not specific. For example, the sentence “I like
you too” can have multiple interpretations like I like you (just like you like me), I like you (just like someone else dose).
NLP Phases

Following diagram shows the phases or logical steps in

natural language processing −
NLP Phases
NLP Phases

Morphological Processing
It is the first phase of NLP. The purpose of this phase is to break chunks of
language input into sets of tokens corresponding to paragraphs, sentences and
words. For example, a word like “uneasy” can be broken into two sub-word
tokens as “un-easy”.
Syntax Analysis
It is the second phase of NLP. The purpose of this phase is two folds: to check that
a sentence is well formed or not and to break it up into a structure that shows the
syntactic relationships between the different words. For example, the sentence
like “The school goes to the boy” would be rejected by syntax analyzer or parser.
Semantic Analysis
It is the third phase of NLP. The purpose of this phase is to draw exact
meaning, or you can say dictionary meaning from the text. The text is
checked for meaningfulness. For example, semantic analyzer would
reject a sentence like “Hot ice-cream”.
Pragmatic Analysis
It is the fourth phase of NLP. Pragmatic analysis simply fits the actual
objects/events, which exist in a given context with object references
obtained during the last phase (semantic analysis). For example, the
sentence “Put the banana in the basket on the shelf” can have two
semantic interpretations and pragmatic analyzer will choose between
these two possibilities.
EXPERT SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION

The expert system is a part of AI, and the first ES was developed
in the year 1970, which was the first successful approach of
artificial intelligence. It solves the most complex issue as an
expert by extracting the knowledge stored in its knowledge base.
The system helps in decision making for compsex problems
using both facts and heuristics like a human expert. It is
called so because it contains the expert knowledge of a specific
domain and can solve any complex problem of that particular
domain. These systems are designed for a specific domain, such
as medicine, science, etc.
INTRODUCTION

The performance of an expert system is based on the

expert's knowledge stored in its knowledge base. The
more knowledge stored in the KB, the more that system
improves its performance. One of the common examples
of an ES is a suggestion of spelling errors while typing in
the Google search box.
What is an Expert System?

An expert system is a computer program that is designed

to solve complex problems and to provide decision-
making ability like a human expert. It performs this by
extracting knowledge from its knowledge base using the
reasoning and inference rules according to the user
queries.
block diagram that represents the working of an
expert system:
Below are some popular examples of the Expert
System:

DENDRAL: It was an artificial intelligence project that was made as a chemical

analysis expert system. It was used in organic chemistry to detect unknown organic
molecules with the help of their mass spectra and knowledge base of chemistry.
MYCIN: It was one of the earliest backward chaining expert systems that was designed
to find the bacteria causing infections like bacteraemia and meningitis. It was also used
for the recommendation of antibiotics and the diagnosis of blood clotting diseases.
PXDES: It is an expert system that is used to determine the type and level of lung
cancer. To determine the disease, it takes a picture from the upper body, which looks
like the shadow. This shadow identifies the type and degree of harm.
CaDeT: The CaDet expert system is a diagnostic support system that can detect cancer
at early stages.
Characteristics of Expert System

High Performance: The expert system provides high performance for

solving any type of complex problem of a specific domain with high
efficiency and accuracy.
Understandable: It responds in a way that can be easily understandable by
the user. It can take input in human language and provides the output in the
same way.
Reliable: It is much reliable for generating an efficient and accurate output.
Highly responsive: ES provides the result for any complex query within a
very short period of time.
Components of Expert System

An expert system mainly consists of three components:

User Interface
Inference Engine
Knowledge Base
Components of Expert System
Components of Expert System

1. User Interface
With the help of a user interface, the expert system interacts
with the user, takes queries as an input in a readable format,
and passes it to the inference engine. After getting the
response from the inference engine, it displays the output to
the user. In other words, it is an interface that helps a non-
expert user to communicate with the expert system to
find a solution.
Components of Expert System
2. Inference Engine(Rules of Engine)
The inference engine is known as the brain of the expert system as it is the main processing unit of
the system. It applies inference rules to the knowledge base to derive a conclusion or deduce new
information. It helps in deriving an error-free solution of queries asked by the user.
With the help of an inference engine, the system extracts the knowledge from the knowledge base.
There are two types of inference engine:
Deterministic Inference engine: The conclusions drawn from this type of inference engine are
assumed to be true. It is based on facts and rules.
Probabilistic Inference engine: This type of inference engine contains uncertainty in conclusions,
and based on the probability.
Inference engine uses the below modes to derive the solutions:
Forward Chaining: It starts from the known facts and rules, and applies the inference rules to add
their conclusion to the known facts.
Backward Chaining: It is a backward reasoning method that starts from the goal and works
backward to prove the known facts.
Components of Expert System
3. Knowledge Base
The knowledgebase is a type of storage that stores knowledge
acquired from the different experts of the particular domain.
It is considered as big storage of knowledge. The more the
knowledge base, the more precise will be the Expert System.
It is similar to a database that contains information and rules
of a particular domain or subject.
One can also view the knowledge base as collections of
objects and their attributes. Such as a Lion is an object and its
attributes are it is a mammal, it is not a domestic animal, etc.
Components of Knowledge Base
Factual Knowledge: The knowledge which is based on facts and
accepted by knowledge engineers comes under factual knowledge.
Heuristic Knowledge: This knowledge is based on practice, the
ability to guess, evaluation, and experiences.
Knowledge Representation: It is used to formalize the
knowledge stored in the knowledge base using the If-else rules.
Knowledge Acquisitions: It is the process of extracting,
organizing, and structuring the domain knowledge, specifying the
rules to acquire the knowledge from various experts, and store that
knowledge into the knowledge base.
Development of Expert System
Here, we will explain the working of an expert system by taking an example of MYCIN
ES. Below are some steps to build an MYCIN:
Firstly, ES should be fed with expert knowledge. In the case of MYCIN, human experts
specialized in the medical field of bacterial infection, provide information about the
causes, symptoms, and other knowledge in that domain.
The KB of the MYCIN is updated successfully. In order to test it, the doctor provides a
new problem to it. The problem is to identify the presence of the bacteria by inputting the
details of a patient, including the symptoms, current condition, and medical history.
The ES will need a questionnaire to be filled by the patient to know the general
information about the patient, such as gender, age, etc.
Now the system has collected all the information, so it will find the solution for the
problem by applying if-then rules using the inference engine and using the facts stored
within the KB.
In the end, it will provide a response to the patient by using the user interface.
Participants in the development of Expert System

There are three primary participants in the building of Expert System:

Expert: The success of an ES much depends on the knowledge provided by
human experts. These experts are those persons who are specialized in that
specific domain.
Knowledge Engineer: Knowledge engineer is the person who gathers the
knowledge from the domain experts and then codifies that knowledge to the
system according to the formalism.
End-User: This is a particular person or a group of people who may not be
experts, and working on the expert system needs the solution or advice for
his queries, which are complex.
Why Expert System?
Before using any technology, we must have an idea about why to use that technology and hence the same
for the ES. Although we have human experts in every field, then what is the need to develop a computer-
based system. So below are the points that are describing the need of the ES:
No memory Limitations: It can store as much data as required and can memorize it at the time of its
application. But for human experts, there are some limitations to memorize all things at every time.
High Efficiency: If the knowledge base is updated with the correct knowledge, then it provides a highly
efficient output, which may not be possible for a human.
Expertise in a domain: There are lots of human experts in each domain, and they all have different skills,
different experiences, and different skills, so it is not easy to get a final output for the query. But if we put
the knowledge gained from human experts into the expert system, then it provides an efficient output by
mixing all the facts and knowledge
Not affected by emotions: These systems are not affected by human emotions such as fatigue, anger,
depression, anxiety, etc.. Hence the performance remains constant.
High security: These systems provide high security to resolve any query.
Considers all the facts: To respond to any query, it checks and considers all the available facts and
provides the result accordingly. But it is possible that a human expert may not consider some facts due to
any reason.
Regular updates improve the performance: If there is an issue in the result provided by the expert
systems, we can improve the performance of the system by updating the knowledge base.
Capabilities of the Expert System
Advising: It is capable of advising the human being for the query of any domain from
the particular ES.
Provide decision-making capabilities: It provides the capability of decision making
in any domain, such as for making any financial decision, decisions in medical science,
etc.
Demonstrate a device: It is capable of demonstrating any new products such as its
features, specifications, how to use that product, etc.
Problem-solving: It has problem-solving capabilities.
Explaining a problem: It is also capable of providing a detailed description of an
input problem.
Interpreting the input: It is capable of interpreting the input given by the user.
Predicting results: It can be used for the prediction of a result.
Diagnosis: An ES designed for the medical field is capable of diagnosing a disease
without using multiple components as it already contains various inbuilt medical tools.
Advantages of Expert System

These systems are highly reproducible.

They can be used for risky places where the human presence is
not safe.
Error possibilities are less if the KB contains correct
knowledge.
The performance of these systems remains steady as it is not
affected by emotions, tension, or fatigue.
They provide a very high speed to respond to a particular query.
Limitations of Expert System

The response of the expert system may get wrong if the knowledge
base contains the wrong information.
Like a human being, it cannot produce a creative output for different
scenarios.
Its maintenance and development costs are very high.
Knowledge acquisition for designing is much difficult.
For each domain, we require a specific ES, which is one of the big
limitations.
It cannot learn from itself and hence requires manual updates.
Applications of Expert System

In designing and manufacturing domain

It can be broadly used for designing and manufacturing physical devices such as camera lenses and
automobiles.
In the knowledge domain
These systems are primarily used for publishing the relevant knowledge to the users. The two popular ES
used for this domain is an advisor and a tax advisor.
In the finance domain
In the finance industries, it is used to detect any type of possible fraud, suspicious activity, and advise
bankers that if they should provide loans for business or not.
In the diagnosis and troubleshooting of devices
In medical diagnosis, the ES system is used, and it was the first area where these systems were used.
Planning and Scheduling
The expert systems can also be used for planning and scheduling some particular tasks for achieving the
goal of that task.
ROBOTICS
INTRODUCTION

Robotics is a domain in artificial intelligence that deals

with the study of creating intelligent and efficient robots.
What are Robots?

Robots are the artificial agents acting in real world

environment.
Objective
Robots are aimed at manipulating the objects by perceiving,
picking, moving, modifying the physical properties of object,
destroying it, or to have an effect thereby freeing manpower
from doing repetitive functions without getting bored,
distracted, or exhausted.
What is Robotics?

Robotics is a branch of AI, which is composed of Electrical Engineering,

Mechanical Engineering, and Computer Science for designing,
construction, and application of robots.
Aspects of Robotics
The robots have mechanical construction, form, or shape designed to
accomplish a particular task.
They have electrical components which power and control the machinery.
They contain some level of computer program that determines what,
when and how a robot does something.
Difference in Robot System and Other AI Program
Robot Locomotion

Locomotion is the mechanism that makes a robot capable

of moving in its environment. There are various types of
locomotions −
1. Legged
2. Wheeled
3. Combination of Legged and Wheeled Locomotion
4. Tracked slip/skid
Legged Locomotion

This type of locomotion consumes more power while demonstrating

walk, jump, trot, hop, climb up or down, etc.
It requires more number of motors to accomplish a movement. It is
suited for rough as well as smooth terrain where irregular or too
smooth surface makes it consume more power for a wheeled
locomotion. It is little difficult to implement because of stability
issues.
It comes with the variety of one, two, four, and six legs. If a robot has
multiple legs then leg coordination is necessary for locomotion.
Wheeled Locomotion

It requires fewer number of motors to accomplish a movement. It is little

easy to implement as there are less stability issues in case of more number
of wheels. It is power efficient as compared to legged locomotion.
Standard wheel − Rotates around the wheel axle and around the contact
Castor wheel − Rotates around the wheel axle and the offset steering joint.
Swedish 45o and Swedish 90o wheels − Omni-wheel, rotates around the
contact point, around the wheel axle, and around the rollers.
Ball or spherical wheel − Omnidirectional wheel, technically difficult to
implement.
Slip/Skid Locomotion

In this type, the vehicles use tracks as in a tank. The robot

is steered by moving the tracks with different speeds in
the same or opposite direction. It offers stability because
of large contact area of track and ground.
Components of a Robot

Robots are constructed with the following −

Power Supply − The robots are powered by batteries, solar power, hydraulic, or
pneumatic power sources.
Actuators − They convert energy into movement.
Electric motors (AC/DC) − They are required for rotational movement.
Pneumatic Air Muscles − They contract almost 40% when air is sucked in them.
Muscle Wires − They contract by 5% when electric current is passed through them.
Piezo Motors and Ultrasonic Motors − Best for industrial robots.
Sensors − They provide knowledge of real time information on the task environment.
Robots are equipped with vision sensors to be to compute the depth in the environment. A
tactile sensor imitates the mechanical properties of touch receptors of human fingertips.
Computer Vision

This is a technology of AI with which the robots can see.

The computer vision plays vital role in the domains of
safety, security, health, access, and entertainment.
Computer vision automatically extracts, analyzes, and
comprehends useful information from a single image or an
array of images. This process involves development of
algorithms to accomplish automatic visual comprehension.
Hardware of Computer Vision System

This involves −
1. Power supply
2. Image acquisition device such as camera
3. A processor
4. A software
5. A display device for monitoring the system
6. Accessories such as camera stands, cables, and connectors
Tasks of Computer Vision

OCR − In the domain of computers, Optical Character Reader, a software to

convert scanned documents into editable text, which accompanies a scanner.
Face Detection − Many state-of-the-art cameras come with this feature,
which enables to read the face and take the picture of that perfect expression.
It is used to let a user access the software on correct match.
Object Recognition − They are installed in supermarkets, cameras, high-
end cars such as BMW, GM, and Volvo.
Estimating Position − It is estimating position of an object with respect to
camera as in position of tumor in human’s body.
Applications of Robotics
The robotics has been instrumental in the various domains such as −
Industries − Robots are used for handling material, cutting, welding, color coating,
drilling, polishing, etc.
Military − Autonomous robots can reach inaccessible and hazardous zones during
war. A robot named Daksh, developed by Defense Research and Development
Organization (DRDO), is in function to destroy life-threatening objects safely.
Medicine − The robots are capable of carrying out hundreds of clinical tests
simultaneously, rehabilitating permanently disabled people, and performing complex
surgeries such as brain tumors.
Exploration − The robot rock climbers used for space exploration, underwater
drones used for ocean exploration are to name a few.
Entertainment − Disney’s engineers have created hundreds of robots for movie
making.
THANK
YOU