Data transfer and Computer

Networking

by
Prof. Mridula Gupta
Department of Electronic science
University of Delhi, South Campus

1
 Reference

1. “Computer Networks Protocols, Standards

and Interfaces “,Ulysses Black
2. “Computer Networks “ Tanenbaum
3. “Electronic Communication Systems” Wayne
Tomasi
4. “Complete Reference of Networking” Zacker

Prof. Mridula Gupta 2

 Module 4
• Layered Protocols, Networks and OSI model
• Synchronous and Asynchronous Transmission
• ISDN

Prof. Mridula Gupta 3

 Need of Layered Protocols?

• Networks have grown in size and complexity.

• Network maintenance
• Each vendor provided a different and unique
approach , creating difficulties in integration at user
site.
• Lack of cohesive approach among the different
vendors.

Thus the basic idea of common standards is to develop

a core of approaches (understanding of conceptual
framework of a network) among all vendors and to
provide a reasonable point of departure when the core
approach does not meet all needs.
 Goals of Layered Protocol

• Logical Decomposition of complex network into smaller,

more understandable parts (layers) .
• Provides for symmetry in functions performed at each
node in the network
• Provides for standard interfaces between network
functions
• Provides for means to predict and control any changes
made in the network.
• Provides for a standard language to clarify
communications between and among network designers,
managers, vendors and users.
 Communication between Layers

• Each layer is a service providers

• Each layers consists of several service functions.
• The top layer – which interfaces with the end user
application is provided with full range of services
offered by all the lower layers.
 Communication through Layered Protocols

Four transitions, called primitives, are invoked to and from the layers
through identifiers called Service Access Points (SAPs)

• Request- Primitive by service

user to invoke a function A B
• Confirm- Primitive by service Confirm
provider to complete a function Request
Response Indication
previously invoked by a Request
at that SAP SAP SAP
• Indication-Primitive by service Service Provider
provider to invoke a function
• Response- Primitive by service
user to complete a function
previously invoked by an
indication at that SAP
 Standard terminology for interfacing
with a layer
Layers

N+1
• SDU (service data unit)- User IDU
data transferred transparently
by layers N+1 to layer N and
subsequently to N-1 PCI SDU ICI
N
• PCI (protocol control
information)-Information
exchanged by different entities PDU ICI
at different sites on the
network to instruct an entity to
perform a service function. IDU

N-1
• PDU ( protocol data unit)- ICI
Combination of SDU and PCI SDU
 Layers
• ICI (interface control
information)- A temporary N+1
parameter passed between IDU
N and N-1 to invoke
service functions
PCI SDU ICI
• IDU(interface data unit) – N
The total unit of
information transferred
PDU ICI
across the layer
boundaries; it includes the
PCI, SDU, and ICI. IDU
is transmitted across the IDU
SAPs N-1
SDU ICI
 The OSI Model

• The OSI, or Open System Interconnection, model

defines a networking framework for implementing
protocols in seven layers.
• Control is passed from one layer to the next, starting
at the application layer in one station, proceeding to
the bottom layer, over the channel to the next station
and back up the hierarchy.
 Goals of OSI Model

• Provide standard for communication between systems

• Remove any technical impediment to communication
between systems
• Remove concern with descriptions of internal
operation of a single system
• Define the points of inter connection for the exchange
of information between systems.
 The Seven Layers

1. Physical Layer
– Lowest Layer
– Functions include activation,
maintenance and deactivation of
the physical circuit between a
DCE/DTE
– provides the hardware means of
sending and receiving data on a
carrier
– defines cables, cards and physical
aspects.
– Fast Ethernet,RS232, and ATM
are protocols with physical layer
components.
 Data Link Layer

• Responsible for the transfer of data over the channel

• Provides for synchronization of data to delimit the flow of bits
from the physical layer
• Provides for the identity of bits ; data packets are encoded and
decoded into bits.
• Ensures that data arrives safely at the receiving DTE
• Controls flow control , so that DTE is not overloaded
• Detects transmission errors and recovers them
 Network Layer
• Specifies the interface of the user DTE into a packet
switched network
• Also specifies interface of two DTEs with each other
through a packet network
• Provides switching and routing technologies
• Routing and forwarding are functions of this layer, as
well as addressing, internetworking, error handling,
congestion control and packet sequencing.
 Transport Layer

• Provides interface between the data communication

networks and the upper three layers
• Gives various options o the users.
• Designed to keep user isolated from physical and
functional aspects of packet network.
• Provides end to end accountability.
 Session Layer

• Serves as a user interface into transport service layer

• The session layer sets up, coordinates, and terminates
conversations, exchanges, and dialogues between the
applications at each end.
– Alternate two-way dialogue or Simultaneous
dialogue
– Abort and restart
– Normal and expedited data flow
 Presentation Layer
• Provides for the syntax of data in the model i.e
representation of the data.
• Accepts data from the application layer and then
negotiate with its peer layer as to the syntax
representation
• This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent across
a network, providing freedom from compatibility
problems.
• It is sometimes called the syntax layer.
 Application Layer
• This layer supports application and end-user
processes.
• Contains service elements to support application
process such as job management, programming
language etc
• Telnet ,FTP and HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer
Protocol) are applications that exist entirely in the
application level.
 The TCP/IP Reference Model
• Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol was formerly
known as APRANET
• APRANET(used by WAN) was developed by Dept. of
Defense (US) for connecting hundreds of universities and
govt. organizations using leased telephone lines
• But when satellite and radio networks were added, APRANET
had trouble interworking with them. Thus the development of
TCP/IP Model.
 Internet Layer

• Defines an official packet

format and protocol called
IP
• It’s job is to permit hosts to
inject packets into any
network and have them
travel independently to the
destination.
• Packet Routing is a major
issue
• They may arrive in different
order.
 The Transport Layer
• It’s function id to allow peer entities on source and
destination hosts to carry on a conversation just as in
OSI Model
• Two end to end protocols are defined as
– TCP
• Reliable connection-oriented protocol that
allows a byte stream originating on one machine
to be delivered without error on any other
machine in internet.
• It fragments the incoming byte into discreet
messages and passes them to internet level
 UDP (User datagram Protocol)

– Unreliable, Connectionless protocol for

applications that do not want TCP’s sequencing
or flow control
– Widely used for one short, client-server type
request- reply queries and applications in which
prompt delivery is required.
 Application Layer
Contains all the higher-level protocols like
TELNET-allows a user on one machine to log onto a distant
machine and work there.
FTP-provides a way to move data efficiently from one machine to
another
SMTP- like FTP, but later mail protocol were attached to make it
specialized one
DNS- added for mapping host names onto their network address.
HTTP- is the protocol that web browsers and web servers use to
communicate with each other over the Internet.
USNET- for news articles.
 Integrated Services Digital Network
(ISDN)

•ISDN is a set of communication standards for simultaneous

digital transmission of voice, video, data, and other network
services over the digitalized circuits of the public circuit-
switched telephone network.

•Prior to ISDN, the telephone system consisted of digital links

like T1/E1 on the long-distance lines between telephone
company offices and analog signals on copper telephone wires to
the customers.

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Prof. Mridula Gupta 25
ISDN Architecture

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There are three basic types of channel available with
ISDN:

B Channel: 64 kbps
D channel: 16 or 64 kbps
H channel: 384, 1536 or 1920kbps

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What are the types of ISDNs?
There are two types of ISDN networks —
BRI (Basic Rate Interface) and PRI (Primary Rate Interface)
The major difference between BRI and PRI is the level of
service and reliability.

To sum them up:

•BRI is the lower tier of service. It only provides basic needs
at a lower cost.
•PRI is the main service. It provides a better connection, more
reliable service, and faster speeds.

Both PRI and BRI ISDN use B channels for sending data and
D channels for other forms of communication. The difference
lies in the number of channels they use to accomplish this.
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 2B+ D Service (Basic Rate Interface, BRI)

ISDN provides a basic access consisting of 3 full-duplex,

time-division multiplexed digital Channels
• Two operating at 64 kbps (B channels, for bearer) and
one at 16 kbps (D channel, for data).
1. One B channel is used for digitally encoded voice and
the other for applications such as data transmission, PCM-
encoded digitized voice, and videotex.
2. The D channel is used for carrying signaling information
and for exchanging network control information.

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BRI system requires bandwidth that accommodate :
- Two 64-kbps B Channels
- One 16-kbps D Channel
- Framing bits
- Synchronization Bits
- Overhead Bits

Total Bit Rate: 192 kbps

The H Channels are used to provide higher bit rates

for special services

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 Primary Rate Interface(PRI)

It provide multiple 64-kbps channels intended to be used

by the higher volume subscribers to the network

In the United States, Canada, Japan, and Korea, the primary rate
interface consists of 23 64-kbps B channels and one 64-kbps D
channel (23B D) for a combined bit rate of 1.544 Mbps.

In Europe, the primary rate interface uses 30 64-kbps B channels

and one 64-kbps D channel for a combined bit rate of 2.048
Mbps.

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 Advantages of ISDN

•It offers multiple digital services that operate through the same
copper wire
• Digital signals broadcast through telephone lines.
• ISDN provides a higher data transfer rate.
• Can connect devices and allow them to operate over a single
line. This includes credit card readers, fax machines, and other
manifold devices.
• It is up and running faster than other modems.

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 Synchronizing network components

Need of synchronization:
i. Computers and terminals must notify each other
that they are able and wish to communicate.
ii. Once they are communicating, they must provide a
method which keeps both devices aware of the
ongoing transmission.
 Synchronizing Network Components

• It is done through “common clock” signal which not

only keeps receiver ready to receive the signal, but
also keeps receiver synchronized with incoming bits.

• For long distance communication between computers

and terminals, timing signal incorporated into the
signal itself instead of using separate clocking
channel. This is known as self-clocking code.
 Asynchronous Transmission

• Each data byte has start and stop signals.

• Purpose of these signals:
- Alert the receiver that data are arriving,
- To give receiver sufficient time to perform certain
timing function before next byte arrives.

S S S
S S S
T T T
T Byte N T Byte 2 T Byte 1
A A A
O O O
R R R
P P P
T T T

Asynchronous Format

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 Synchronous Transmission

• Uses separate clocking channels or a self-clocking

code.
• Eliminate the intermittent start/stop signals around
each character.

Sync Byte N Byte 3 Byte 2 Byte 1 Sync

Fig. Synchronous Formats

 Message Formats

Data contain minimum of 5 parts:

1. Sync bytes.
2. An identification (address) of data
3. Control fields which implement the protocol.
4. User data: contains end-user data or control information
used by other control protocols in communication
system.
5. Element to check error, typically called error-check
field.

Error Check User Data Control Address Sync

Fig. Message Formats

 Terminal
Computer M
MUX
DSE
Dial-up or Leased M DSU
Lines
MUX DSU

Front-End

M: Modem
T
Telephone PBX Computer
and DTEs T

User Files and Devices

Typical Computer / Communication Structure

• Front-End User:
a. Purpose is to offload communication tasks from the
mainframe host computer.
b. Communication protocols exists here.
c. It is especially designed to do a very limited function e.g.
handling the errors of the devices attached to it without
interrupting the host computer.
• Mux (Multiplexer): Function is to allows multiple DTEs
or ports to share one communications lines.
• DSU (Data Service Unit): This device provides a digital
channel from end to end.
• PBX (Private Branch Exchange): It’s a private telephone
switch located in many offices and plays an increasing
role in computer networks.
 ATM

• Asynchronous Transfer Mode is a connection oriented network.

• Most transmissions are synchronous i.e. they are tied to a clock

but ATM is not.

• ATM was designed in early 90’s and was launched in 2000.

• It planned to merge voice , data, cable TV, telex, telegraph etc.

into one single integrated system for transmission purpose. At
first it did not work but now it is more successful than OSI and is
now widely used in telephone systems, for moving IP packets.

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 Contd..

• All ATM traffic is broken into 53 byte cells.

• This make it easier to regulate and measure the bandwidth over
a connection, because by using data structures of predetermined
size, network traffic becomes readily quantifiable, predictable
and manageable.
• All ATM communication is point to point, there are no
broadcast, which means that switching not routing is integral
part of this technology.

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 ATM Architecture

Like Ethernet and token ring, ATM uses the physical

and data link layers of OSI reference model, but is itself
divided into three layers:
• Physical layer
• ATM layer
• ATM adaptation layer

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 Physical Layer

• It converts cells into a bitstream.

• It controls the transmission and receipt of bits in the physical medium.
• It can track the ATM cell boundaries.
• Look for the packaging of cells into the appropriate type of frames.

This layer is divided into two sublayers:

1. Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayer: Defines the actual medium used
by the network including type of cable and other hardware.

2. Transmission Convergence (TC) sublayer:

- Cell delineation: maintains boundaries between cells i.e. isolates bit stream.
- Header Error Control (HEC) sequence generation and verification: ensures
validity of data by checking error control code in cell headers.

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 ATM layer

The ATM layer specifies the format of the cells, constructs the
header, implements error control mechanism and creates and
destroys the virtual circuits.
There are two versions of cell header:
1. User Network Interface: used for communications between
user systems or between user system and switch.
2. Network to Network Interface: used for communication
between switches only.

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 53 Byte cell

• In each case 53 byte cell is

divide into 5 byte header
Header Payload
and 48 byte payload.
• Header is the connection 5 bytes 48 bytes
identifier.
• This information allows
each router to know how 40 Bits
to route each cell.
• Cell routing is done in
hardware at very high
speed. (fixed size cells)

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 Header Bytes

Function of header bytes are:

1. Generic Flow Control (GFC), 4 bits: provide local functions in

UNI cell that are not currently not in used

2. Virtual Path Identifier (VPI), 8 bits: specifies the next

destination of the cell on its path through the ATM network to
its destination.

3.Virtual Channel Identifier (VCI), 16 bits: specifies the channel

within virtual path that cell will use on its path to reach the
destination.

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 Contd..

4. Payload Type Indicator (PTI), 3 bits: specifies the

nature of the data carried in the cell’s payload, using
following bit values:
o Bit 1: specifies whether cell contains user data or
control data
o Bit 2: when cell contained user data specifies whether
congestion is present on the network
o Bit 3: when cell contains user data, specifies whether
the payload contains the last segment of AAL-5 PDU.

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 Contd..

5. Cell Loss Priority (CLP), 1 bit: specifies the priority

for the cell, which is used when a network is forced to
discard cells because of congestion. Value 0 indicates
high priority while 1 shows low priority therefore can
be discarded.
6. Header Error Control (HEC), 8 bits: used to detect
multiple-bit header errors and correct single bit
errors.

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 Payload Bytes

Payload, 48 bytes: contains user, network or

management data to be transported in the cell.

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 ATM adaptation layer (AAL)
Primary function of AAL is to prepare the data received from the
network-protocol layer for transmission and segment it into 48-
bytes units that the ATM layer will package as cells by applying
the header.
AAL consists of two sublayers :
1. Convergence Sublayer(CS) : Prepares network-layer data for
segmentation by applying various fields that are specific to the
type of service that will transmit data, creating CS-PDUs ( cs
protocol data units)
2. Segmentation and Reassembly Sublayer (SAR): Splits CS-
PDUs into segments of appropriate size for packaging in cells.

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 AAL protocols

• AAL 1: A connection oriented service intended for application

that require circuit emulation, such as voice and video
conferencing

• AAL ¾: Supports both connection-oriented and connectionless

data transfer with cell by cell error-checking and multiplexing.

• AAL 5: Also called SEAL (Simple and Efficient Adaptive

Layer), provides both connectionless and connection-oriented
services and is most commonly used in LAN.

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 ATM Virtual Circuits

• A connection between two ATM systems take the form of

virtual circuit
• ATM networks are connection oriented, so before sending
data, a packet is needed to be sent for setting up the
connection.
• As soon as this packet wends its way through N/Ws all
routers make and reserve path for this connection. This is
called virtual circuit.( like telephone system)

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 Contd..

• Some ATMs also work with permanent virtual

circuits ( permanent connections between two hosts).
This is just like leased line.

• Each connection whether temporary or permanent has

a unique connection identifier. Once a connection is
established, either side can begin transmission of
data.

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 OSI ATM ATM Sub Function
Layer Layer Layer
CS Providing the standard interface
AAL convergence.
3/4
SAR Segmentation and Reassembly
Flow control, cell header
generation/extraction, virtual
ATM
2/3 circuit/path management cell
multiplexing/demultiplexing.
Cell rate decoupling, header
2 TC checksum generation & verification,
Physical cell generation, frame generation .
1 PMD Bit timing
Physical network access.

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 ATM Reference Model

Plane Management CS: Convergence

Layer Management sub layer
Control plane User plane SAR: Segmentation &
reassembly sub layer
Upper layer Upper layer
SUB LAYER
CS ATM Adaptation layer
TC: Transmission
SAR convergence sub
layer
ATM Layer
PMD: Physical
TC Physical Layer medium dependent
PMD sub layer

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 ATM Model Functions

• OSI and TCP/IP models were two dimensional but

ATM is three dimensional.
• User plane deals with data transport, flow control and
error connection.
• Control plane is concerned with connection
management.
• The layer and plane management function relate to
resource management and interlayer co-ordination
simultaneously.
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 Features of ATM

• Advantage of ATM is that the hardware can be set up to copy one

incoming cell to multiple output lines. (eg. TV broadcasting)
• Small cells do not block any line for long.
• ATM cells are always delivered in order. They can get lost, but
will always be delivered in order because all cells pass through
one established connection.
• Generally ATM N/Ws supports 155Mbps and 622Mbps.
• The disadvantage of ATM is that its hardware is expensive than
any other high speed protocol.

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