FORENSIC

PHOTOGRAPHY
CRI 198
LESSON TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC
PHOTOGRAPHY

• Lesson Objectives: At the end of this module, you should be

able to:
• 1. Define what is forensic photography; and
• 2. Familiarize the historical development of photography.
DEFINITION OF TERMS:

• Photography – Derived from the Greek words “Phos or Photos” which

means “Light” and “Grapho” meaning “Writing” or “Graphia” meaning “to
Draw”.
• Sir John F. W. Herschel coined the word photography when he first wrote a
letter to Henry Talbot.
• Is the art and science of reproducing image by means of light through some
sensitized material with the aid of a camera, lens, and its accessories and the
chemical process required in order to produce a photograph.
• Forensic = Derived from the Latin Word “Forum” which means “a marketplace” where people
gather for public discussion.
note: when the word forensic was used in conjunction with other science it connotes a
relationship to the administration of justice. It is sometimes used interchangeably with the word
legal.
• Police photography – is the application of principles of photography in relation to police work
and in the administration of justice.
• Photograph – The mechanical and chemical result of photography.
- An image that can only be a product of photography.
• Picture – It is a generic term that refers to all kinds of form images.
• Negative – A material showing a negative (latent) photographic image on transparent material
used for printing a positive picture (photograph) as a result of chemical processing.
HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY

• The history of photography has roots in remote antiquity with the

discovery of the principle of the camera obscura and the observation that
some substances are visibly altered by exposure to light.
• Thomas Wedgewood (1820) - Made the first reliably documented although
unsuccessful attempt.
• Joseph Nicéphore Niépce - Succeeded, but several days of exposure in the
camera were required. French Inventor, captured Images using a metal
plate, Producing the First permanent photographic images
• Daguerreotype process - Developed by Niépce's associate Louis Daguerre
-the first publicly announced photographic process, Commercially
introduced in 1839, date as the birth year of practical photography. More convenient, exposure time
to less than 30 minutes and keep the image from disappearing.
• 1839 Sir John Herschel - Developed the first glass negative as opposed to metal.
- He coined the term Photography deriving from the Greek "fos“ (phos)
meaning light and "grafo"(grapho) - to write.
• Henry Fox Talbot - Introduced the paper-based calotype negative (Calotype, Greek for a
beautiful picture) and salt print processes.
- Invented mouse Trap Camera.
CAMERA OBSCURA (13-14 CENTURIES)

• The instrument that people used for processing pictures was called the
Camera Obscura (which is Latin for the Dark Room)
• Camera Obscura is essentially a dark, closed space in the shape of a box with
a hole on one side of it. The hole has to be small enough in proportion to the
box to make the camera obscura work properly. The way it works is that due,
to optical laws, the light coming through a tiny hole transforms and creates an
image on the surface that it meets, i.e. the wall of the box.
• The forerunner of the modern camera.
CAMERA LUCIDA: A HISTORY

• In 1807, Sir William Hyde Wollaston patented the camera lucida and
brought life drawing to a whole new level. : A prism on an adjustable stand.
When an artist looks down through the prism, they see the world in front of
them, plus their hand on the page, combined in perfect superimposition. In
short, a camera lucida allows you to trace what you see. And it does so in
full daylight; there’s no need for a dark shroud or enclosure, as with a
camera obscura. And that is the magic of the camera lucida: it’s portable,
easy to use, and—with a little practice—you just copy the world onto your
page with a confident hand.
DEFINITION OF IMPORTANT TERMS

• Photography- is an art or science that deals with the reproduction of images through the
action of light, upon sensitized materials, with the aid of a camera and its accessories, and
the chemical processes involved therein.
• Police Photography- is an art or science that deals with the study of the principles of
photography, the preparation of photographic evidence, and its application to police
work.
• Forensic Photography- is the art or science of photographically documenting a crime
scene and evidence for laboratory examination and analysis for purposes of a court trial.
Photograph- A mechanical and chemical result of photography.
KINDS OF PHOTOGRAPHY AND ITS APPLICATION

• 1. Photomicrography – The art of photographing minute objects when magnified by means of a microscope and
enlarged from 10 times and up. - It is used usually in question documents and Firearm Identification.
• 2.Photomacrography – The type of photography directly enlarged on the negative and magnified from one to nine
times.
Camera with Macro Lens
• 3. Microphotography – The process of reducing big objects or things of minute objects.
• 4. Crime Scene Photography – Deals with photographing the scene of the crime or details of the perpetuated crime.
• 5. Surveillance Photography – Deals with photographing individuals without their knowledge, such as the same in
clandestine photography.
• 6. Infrared Photography – deals with the photographing of objects visible, divisible, and invisible even
with haze.
• 7. Ultra-Violet Photography – deals with photographing objects or markings which are invisible using
reflected or fluorescent.
• 8. X-Ray Photography – deals with photographing hidden objects or things.
• 9. Traffic Accident Photography – deals with the photographing of traffic incidents or occurrences,
especially in a vehicular accident.
• 10. Investigative Photography – deals with the study of the concept of photography, its application to law
enforcement or investigation process and the preparation of photographic evidence for court presentation.
• 11. Mug-shot Photography – Deals with the study of photographing individuals for
identification purposes.
• 12. Thermo photography – A kind of photo where we use laser beam radiation using laser
beam film.
• 13. Aerial photography–A kind of photography applied for photo mapping. Taking a
photograph above the subject.
• 14. Underwater photography – photographing things underwater.
• 15. Fingerprint Photography – Deals with the application of macro-photography so as to
produces an enlargement of finger print for comparison purposes.
• 16. Firearm Identification photography – Deals with the photographing of firearm shells
and bullets. It is also where photomicrography is applied.
• 17. Question Document photography- the process of photographing documents for
purposes of examination and as a substitute for a duplicate copy when the original is lost
and the purpose of the duplicate photograph is to establish the contents of the lost original
document.
• 18. Arson and Questionable Fire photography – It is the willful and malicious burning of
property, usually a building or dwelling unit.
IMPORTANT PERSONALITIES IN THE FIELD OF
PHOTOGRAPHY
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this module, you should be able to:
• 1. Enumerate the different personalities in the field of photography.
• 2. Explain the contributions of different personalities in the field of photography.
ARISTOTLE

• A famous Greek philosopher who invented the first pinhole camera that was later known
as camera obscura (Italian work for darkroom chamber) which literally translated to
Darkened fox.
• Artists or painters, in order to get an accurate perspective of the natural scene and scales
of their subjects utilize the Camera Obscura.
• He was the one who succeeded in recording the principle that the light entering through a
small hole produces an inverted image or figure.
ALHAZEN (965-1039)

• An Arabian scholar who found out that light entering a small hole in the wall or shuttered
window of a darkened room cast an upside-down picture of the scene outside onto the
opposite wall.
• He used this in observing the solar eclipse by entering a dark room with a pinhole
opening to avoid harming the eye.
• He was considered the one who Invented the Camera Obscura
JEAN BAPTISTE FORTA

• An artist and a scientist who, in his Pseudo Science Magic, had

made use of the Camera Obscura And replaced the hole with a
lens that made the image brighter and sharper.
• He was the first person who introduced the lens.
JOHANN HENRICH SCHULZE

• A German scientist (Anatomist) discovered that silver Nitrate when exposed to light turns
purple.
• He got interested in his finding, that fair later, he discovered that the evening activity was
not due to the heat but light.
• He finally concluded that silver nitrate is sensitive to light and capable of producing
images.
 JOSEPH NICEPHORE NIEPCE OF
THOMAS WEDGEWOOD (1802) FRANCE (1816)

• He discovered that silver • He experimented with combining photosensitive

materials with lithography to facilitate his
chloride is more sensitive endeavor in printmaking.
than silver nitrate and thus, • In 1822, he claimed some success, achieving
more capable of recording what he called “POINTS DE VUE” Smart images
made by the Camera Obscura with more than
and producing images.
eight hours of exposure.
• He took the world’s very first photograph called
“Heliography”.
 LOUISE JACQUES MANDE
DAGUERRE (1838-1839) MATHEW B. BRADY

• A Parisian painter and theater designer who • When the American Civil war broke out,
continued the efforts of Niepce to perfect he was able to preserve the scene with
the photographic process. the use of a camera.
• He invented the principle for the silver
plate photograph and used the Daguerre
type that produces one kind of picture on
metal which was presented by the French
Scientific Academy.
• He invented the Daguerreotype in Paris
 WILLIAM HENRY FOX TALBOT
(1839) JOHN W. HERSCHEL

• He is the Father of modern Photography • coined the word photography.

• He invented the Calotype, which produces a • He then suggested negative and positive in
negative picture on paper, the lights on the the following years.
image were recorded as darks, the darks as • He pointed out images with a solution of
lights. Hyposulfite of Soda (hypo or sodium
thiosulfate) which had been discovered in
• He presented it before the royal family in
1819.
England.
FREDERICK SCOTT ARCHER DANIEL BARBARO
• He pioneered the wet Collodion process • He introduced the use of lenses in the
which took place of the collotype known camera.
as collodion type process.
 SIR ISAAC NEWTON (1666) MAXILL (1863)
• An English Philosopher, Mathematician,
• He discovered the different effects of this
and Physicist who discovered and proved
application when colored photography
that the strongest light is white light.
was discovered.
• He defended his theory by allowing white
light (sunlight) to pass through a prism
thus refracting and reflecting the light into
its component parts.
 MADDAOX (1884) GEORGE EASTMAN (1889)

• Successfully introduced the plate with • He introduced the use of roll film made
gelatin. of celluloid materials for use by a
• The roll film came and new brands of portable camera.
cameras with different lenses and
mechanisms were placed in the market.
WILHELM ROENGENT (1895) EDWIN H. LAND (1947)

• He discovered X-ray Photography which • Introduced “polaroid” one-step

later became the basis of photography.
RADIOGRAPH used by doctors in
measuring the heartbeat and see the other
structure of the body
STEVE SASSON (1975)
• Steve Sasson (1975)
 SIGNIFICANCE OF PHOTOGRAPHY IN LAW
ENFORCEMENT AND CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
• Discuss the importance of Forensic Photography.
• Explain the uses of photography in Criminal Investigation.
SIGNIFICANCE OF PHOTOGRAPHY IN LAW
ENFORCEMENT
• Forensic science holds the branch of Forensic photography which encompasses
documenting both suspected and convicted criminals, and also the crime scenes, victims,
and other evidence needed to make a conviction. Although photography was widely
acknowledged as the most accurate way to depict and document people and objects, it was
not until key developments in the late 19th century that it came to be widely accepted as a
forensic means of identification. Forensic photography resulted from the modernization of
criminal justice systems and the power of photographic realism.
• Alphonse bertillion – police officer that use photography for documenting bertillionage
system.
IMPORTANCE OF FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

• Small objects of great importance in a crime committed may escape in the first phase of
examination by the investigator but may be seen and recorded on the photograph.
• Small objects of great importance in a crime committed may escape in the first phase of
examination by the investigator but may be seen and recorded on the photograph.
• Used as an aid by investigators to describe in court some of the details of the crime scene
they have investigated several months ago, the small details and exact locations of objects.
• To assist the investigators in using photographic equipment and techniques in their effort to
solve crimes.
 PHOTOGRAPHY IN LAW ENFORCEMENT

• Photography, in the law enforcement field, is a diversified subject. Perhaps the best way to describe what is needed is to break the field into three groups
(lab technicians, crime scene specialists, and forensic photographers)

3 types of photographers in the Law enforcement field

1. Lab Technician – is the darkroom expert. They are responsible for all film development, both black & white and
color. They also produce black & white and color enlargements, as well as 1:1. In addition, they are responsible for
all copy work and the logging and filing of all negatives.
2. 2. Crime Scene Specialist (CSS)- Is trained in a variety of subjects, including photography. Their mission is to cover
all crime scenes by photographing them, gathering and packaging evidence, dusting and lifting fingerprints, making
measurements, and drawing the crime scene to scale. A CSS is also required to photograph bodies at the scene and at
autopsies. They are non-sworn and are not required to carry a firearm.
3. 3. Forensic Photographer - is an expert in the photo sciences field. He has knowledge beyond the basics of exposure
and film development. He is rarely called to a crime scene unless special photography is required, such as ultraviolet
or Luminol photography.
 OBJECTIVES OF POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY

• To produce a pictorial record of everything pertaining to the crime.

2. Recording and preserving evidence
• To help in keeping the police officer’s memory as accurate as possible as
to where they find things. a. Crime scene
• To help on securing and obtain a confession, disposition, and information
b. Traffic accident
relating to the case.
Uses of Photography in Police Work c. Object of evidence
General Application of Photography in Police Work d. Evidential traces (fingerprint, footprint, and tool marks)
1. Identification purposes
3. Discovering and proving evidence not readily seen by the naked eye
a. Prisoners, a person subject of investigation
e. contrast control by lighting, use of filters, and use of different
b. B. Unidentified cadavers (victims of crimes, traffic accidents,
explosions, calamities, etc.) films and papers.

c. c. Missing persons f. Magnification or enlargement of tiny objects by the application

d. d. Lost or stolen properties of photomicrography and photomacrography.
e. e. Identification of civilian (clearance for employment like PNP, NBI, g. Use of invisible radiation like x-rays, ultraviolet rays, and infra-
VISA, Passport) red rays
OBJECTIVES OF POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY

4. Recording action of offender 6. For crime prevention

a. Surveillance a. Visual Presentation for lectures on traffic education, drug

prevention seminars, informational services, and others.
b. Entrapment
7. Public information
c. Extra-judicial confession
b. Photograph for a press release, posters of wanted criminals,
d. Re-enactment of a crime crime alerts, etc.
5. court exhibits 8. Police training
e. Individual photographs c. prepared training films or video presentations of personnel
f. Slide projections indoctrination, police tactics, investigative techniques, traffic
control, civil disturbances controls, riots or prison disorders,
g. Comparison charts documentaries for pre-and post-briefings on police
h. Motion picture or video coverage/presentation operations, etc.
 DIFFERENT VIEWS IN PHOTOGRAPHING

• General View – taking an overall view of the scene of the crime. It shows the
direction and location of the crime scene.
• Medium View – is the taking of a photograph of the scene of the crime by
dividing it into sections. This view will best view the nature of the crime.
• Close-up View –the taking of individual photographs of the evidence at the scene
of the crime. It is designed to show the details of the crime.
• Extreme closed–up view – commonly designed in laboratory photography using
some magnification such as photomicrography and photomicrography.
 Specific Application

Identificatio Crime Scene Court

n Photography Presentation
 LESSON WRAP-UP
• Summary: Working in a law enforcement photo lab is a busy, technically complex, and interesting way to use your
photographic expertise. Police photographers must have the ability to take professional portraits and the skill to do
forensic photography as well. They are often partnered with police officers/investigators to get photos ready for
court or for the media. The photographs were not considered evidence in themselves earlier but to provide visual
documentation of the scene and locations of the evidence within the scene. Photographs taken at the crime scene
allowed the judges/lawyers to recreate that scene for later analysis or for use in the courtroom. The two most
important aspects of photography are the use of digital camera equipment and the training or skill of the
photographer. Since cameras cannot produce the same view that the human eye sees; it is the photographer's use of
the camera settings that can affect what can or cannot be seen in a photograph. Therefore, a trained photographer
recognizes difficult lighting situations and adjusts the camera settings accordingly. While, by following the guideline
for the accuracy and integrity of a crime scene photograph, it shall become admissible to be presented in court of
law.
WHAT ARE THE 6 CARDINAL POINTS OF CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION

• What
• Where
• When
• Why
• To Whom
• How
LESSON TITLE: PHOTOGRAPHIC RAYS – ITS
NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. Explain the importance of light in photography
2. Familiarize the theories of light.
LIGHT
• Light - is one of the number of a known form of radiant
electromagnetic energy which travels in a wave motion. Actually,
there are other theories that explain the behavior of light but for
one purpose, the wave theory is the only one considered. This form
of energy travels at speed of about 186,000 miles per second in air,
but they differ in wavelength and frequency.
WAVELENGHT FREQUENCY
• Wavelength is the distance from crest • Frequency is the number of waves
(highest point) to the wave of the next passing in a given point in one second
succeeding crest.
THEORIES OF LIGHT
• Wavelength Theory (James Maxwell) The wavelength of light is
the most pertinent, particularly in the design of lenses. It is best
illustrated by the dropping of a stone in a pond of still water.
The series of a wave that travels outward from the center point
is just like light waves that travel in all directions from a source
with equal velocity. The theory may be used to illustrate
reflection, interference, refraction, diffraction, and polarization.
QUANTUM THEORY
ALBERT EINSTEIN

• In 1900 Max Plank theorized that light might be made up of

little bundles of energy named Quanta. A quantum of light is
called a photon. When a photon strikes a light-sensitive surface,
it gives the energy of electrons within a metal explaining the
photoelectric current. It is used to explain X-radiation and photo
electricity.
 FOUR PHOTOGRAPHIC RAYS

1. X-ray – radiation having a wavelength between 01 to 30nanometers or milli-microns. They are

produced by passing an electric current through a special type of vacuum tube.
2. Ultra-violet rays – radiation having a wavelength from 30 to 400 milli-microns. It is used to
photograph fingerprints on multi-colored backgrounds, documents that are altered chemically or
over writings, and detection of secret writings.
3. Visible light rays or White light – rays having a wavelength of 400 to 700 milli-microns.
4. Infra-red rays- radiation having a wavelength of 700 to 1000 milli-microns. It is used in taking
photographs of obliterated writing, burnt or dirty documents or blackout photography.
• Millimicron - units of wavelength which is equivalent to one-millionth part of a
millimeter.
• Angstrong- smaller for it has an equivalent measurement of 10 millionth part of a
Millimeter.
• Visible spectrum – a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum where visible light is
found, visible light includes all those radiations having a wavelength ranging from 400-
700mu.
• Color • Yellow 590mu
• Primary Colors Neutral Color
• Red (longest wavelength) 700mu • Gray
• Blue - 450mu • White
• Green – 550mu • Black
Complementary Colors
• magenta (shortest wavelength) 400mu
• Cyan 500mu
 LESSON WRAP-UP
• Summary: Light is made up of multiple different wavelengths, and each
wavelength corresponds to a different color. The color we see is a result of a
wavelength being reflected from the object we are viewing. The visible spectrum
is the spectrum of light that is visible and distinguishable to the naked eye, and
this spectrum ranges from dark red at 700 nm to violet at 400 nm. If there is one
essential ingredient for photography, it is light and photography is nothing but
writing and painting with light. It really wouldn’t matter how much money you
put into your lenses and cameras if they were unable to gather, focus, direct, and
record light, your gear would be nothing.
FAQs ⮚ What are the different • Ultra violet rays
energies in the electromagnetic • Visible light
spectrum:
• Infrared rays
• Cosmic rays
• Heat rays
• Gamma Rays
• Hertzian rays and alternating
• X-rays Current oscillations
LESSON TITLE: EFFECTS AND TYPES OF LIGHT

Lesson Objectives: At the end of this module, you should be able

to:
1. Identify the types of light
2. Familiarize the primary or secondary light.
EFFECTS OF LIGHT WHEN IT HITS AN OBJECT

When a light wave hits an object, what happens to it depends on the energy of the light wave,
the natural frequency at which electrons vibrate in the material, and the strength with which the
atoms in the material hold onto their electrons. Based on these three factors, four different
things can happen when light hits an object:
• The waves can be reflected or scattered off the object. If it hits a mirror it bounce back
• The waves can be absorbed by the object. Prevents from either bouncing or passing through,
it hits dark or colored objects
• The waves can be refracted through the object.
• The waves can pass through the object with no effect.
GENERAL TYPES OF LIGHT

1. Visible Light ⮚ Light with a wavelength of 400-700 nm

2. Invisible Light ⮚ Lights with shorter or longer wavelength

Visible light waves are the only electromagnetic waves we can see. We see these
waves as the colors of the rainbow. Each color has a different wavelength. Red
has the longest wavelength and violet has the shortest wavelength. When all the
waves are seen together, they make white light.
When white light shines through a prism or through water vapor like this
rainbow, the white light is broken apart into the colors of the visible light
• What’s the difference between visible light and invisible light?
It’s all in your head—specifically, in your eyes. Whether a
particular wavelength of light is visible or invisible depends
solely on which wavelengths your eyes can detect. If your eyes
were tuned to different wavelengths, new wavelengths of light
could become visible—and some colors you can see now might
become invisible.
 WHITE LIGHT

When all the wavelengths between 400-700 nm are presented to the eye in nearly equal quantity, we get the
sensation or perception of colorless or white light.
• If a narrow beam of white light is allowed to pass a prism it will bend the light of a shorter wavelength
more than those with longer wavelengths thus speeding them out into the visible spectrum. These are the
colors of the rainbow.
• Note: White light is the sum total of all colors of the rainbow while Black is the absence of all colors.
• If we will divide the wavelength of visible light into three, we will produce:
● Blue
● Green
● Red
 LESSON WRAP-UP

• Summary: The most important characteristics of visible light are color which is both an
inherent property of light and an artifact of the human eye. Our eyes include specialized
cells known as cones. These cones act as receivers that are tuned to the wavelength of the
narrowband of the EM spectrum. The human eye sees color over wavelengths ranging
roughly from 400 nanometers (violet) to 700 nanometers (red). Light from 400–700
nanometers (nm) is called visible light, or the visible spectrum because humans can see it.
The light outside of this range may be visible to other organisms but cannot be perceived
by the human eye. Colors of light that correspond to narrow wavelength bands
(monochromatic light) are the pure spectral colors learned using the ROYGBIV acronym:
red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.
FAQS

What are kinds of object as to how they behave to light:

1. Transparent Object ⮚ Allows sufficient visible light to pass through them
that the object on the other side may be clearly seen.
2. Translucent Object ⮚ Allows light to pass, however, diffuse it sufficiently
that objects on the other side may not be clearly distinguished.
3. Opaque Object ⮚ So greatly diffuses the light that recognizing the object
on the other side is very difficult if not impossible.
PROPERTIES AND THE SOURCE OF LIGHT

Lesson Objectives: At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. Familiarize yourself with the different properties of light.
2. Categorize the sources of light.
PROPERTIES OF LIGHT

1. Reflection- It is the deflection or bouncing back of light when it hits a surface. Regular
Happens when light hits a flat, smooth and shiny surface. Irregular of diffused Occurs
when light hits a rough or uneven but glossy object.
 2. REFRACTION THE BENDING OF LIGHT WHEN PASSING FROM ONE
MEDIUM TO ANOTHER.

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY

 3. DIFFRACTION THE BENDING OF LIGHT WHEN IT HITS A SHARP
EDGE OPAQUE OBJECT

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LESSON TITLE: BASIC PARTS AND FUNCTIONS

• Lesson Objectives: At the end of this module, you should be able to:
• 1. Explain the function of camera
• 2. Recognize the basic parts of the camera
 CAMERA AND ITS ACCESSORIES

• A camera is basically nothing more than a light tight box with a pinhole or
a lens, a shutter at one end and a holder of sensitized material at the other.
While there are various kinds of camera from the simplest construction
(Box-type) to the most complicated, all operate on the same principles. The
exposure of the sensitized material to light is controlled by the lens and its
aperture, and the shutter through its speed in opening and closing the lens
to light
 EARLY FORMS OF CAMERA

I. Pinhole Camera – a camera of simple design and construction usually home-made

consisting of a box having a small aperture functioning as lens at one end, the image
being projected on the film at the other end.

This Photo by Unknown Author is

licensed under CC BY-SA

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under

CC BY-NC-ND
2. Box Camera
• a simple camera is little more than a pinhole camera. It has a lens and shutter. In the box camera, the
pinhole is replaced by the lens to enable the photographer to gather more light to be recorded.
3. Camera obscura (Lat. dark chamber)
• was an optical device used in drawing, and one of the ancestral threads leading to the
invention of photography.

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA

 MAIN KINDS OF CAMERA

1. Box Camera vertical and horizontal axes and its lens board
2. View Camera raised, lowered, or tipped.

The biggest and the most sophisticated among This flexibility enables the photographer to
the different types of cameras. control the image formed by the lens.

A version of press cameras; they have Practically useless for Candid or action
removable lenses, can be focused by moving photography.
either the front or the rear of the camera, and Useful and effective in the reproduction of
are equipped with long bellows. small objects.
The back can be moved or swung on both
 3. REFLEX CAMERA
a. Single Lens Reflex (SLR) Camera
The term “Single lens” means that only one is used for both viewing
the scene and taking photographs of it, thereby preventing parallax. It
has a detachable lens and is mostly used in police photography.
Parallax
• The difference between what is seen through the viewfinder and
what is exactly recorded in the film.
 REFLEX CAMERA
b. Twin Lens Reflex Camera
 Employs 2 separate lenses – one for viewing and one for focusing,
and the second is usually mounted under the first, transmitting the
light to the focal plane recording.
 The camera has permanently fixed lenses and an automatic parallax This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under
CC BY-SA
adjustment.
 Its two lenses focus in unison so that the top screen shows the image
sharpness and framing as recorded on the film in the lower section
 4. POLAROID STILL
 This camera is restricted in its uses but
ideal for the instant photograph when
there is no requirement for
enlargements.
 5. DIGITAL CAMERA

A digital camera (or digicam) is a camera that

encodes digital images and videos digitally and stores
them for later reproduction. Most cameras sold today
are digital, [ and digital cameras are incorporated into
many devices ranging from PDAs and mobile phones
(called camera phones) to vehicles.
ESSENTIAL PARTS OF A CAMERA
 I. BODY OR LIGHT TIGHT
BOX

– suggest an enclosure devoid of light. An enclosure would

prevent light from exposing the sensitized material inside the
camera. This does not necessarily mean that the box or
enclosure to always light tight at all times because if it does,
then no light could reach the sensitized material during
exposure. It means that before and after the extraneous light,
which is not necessary to form the final images.
 2. LENS
– the function of the lens is to focus the
light coming from the subject. It is chiefly
responsible for the sharpness of the image
formed through which light passes during
the exposure
 3. SHUTTER
– is used to allow light to enter through
the lens and reach the film for a pre-
determined interval of time, during
which light is again blocked off from the
film
 4. HOLDER OF SENSITIZED
MATERIAL
– located at the opposite side of the lens. Its
function is to hold firmly the sensitized material
in its place during exposure to prevent the
formation of a multiple or blurred image of the
subject.
5. VIEW-FINDER
– it is a means of determining the
field of view of the camera or the
extent of the coverage of
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under
CC BY-SA
WHAT IS THE FIRST DIGITAL CAMERA?
 1975 KODAK DIGITAL
CAMERA PROTOTYPE

Created in 1975 by Steve Sasson, an

engineer at Kodak, the first-ever digital
camera was a fairly rudimentary affair
compared to what we use today.
 1994 APPLE QUICKTAKE 100

The first digital cameras for the consumer-

level market that worked with a home
computer via a serial cable were the Apple
Quick Take 100 cam
WHAT ARE OTHER TYPES OF CAMERA
(ACCORDING TO FILM USE/S)
 1. PRESS CAMERA
 A camera loaded with a sheet of
film.
 They are traditional folding
bellows designs with a lens
standard in an extendable
baseboard.
 2. UNDERWATER CAMERA

Designed for underwater

photography.
 3. WIDE VIEW ANGLE
CAMERA
A camera with a wide angle lens that
produces a rectangular image that is
designed for landscape photography and
architectural photography.
 4. PANORAMIC CAMERA

 Used for landscaping photography.

 It is easy to use by encompassing a 120®,
180®, or 360® view of one exposure.
 5. STILL VIDEO CAMERA

Images can be stored in video tapes

equipment with a floppy disc, a disc
that can hold about 50 images or
more
COURSE CODE: FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY
MODULE 8
• Lesson title: THE LENS, ITS TYPES, AND DEFECTS
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. Explain the function of the lens;
2. 2. Identify the types and defects of Lenses
LENS THE BASIC FUNCTION OF A CAMERA LENS IS TO
"GATHER" LIGHT RAYS FROM A SUBJECT, FORM AND FOCUS
THOSE RAYS INTO AN IMAGE, AND PROJECT THIS IMAGE
ONTO FILM INSIDE THE CAMERA. OPTICAL GLASS CAN
BEND OR CHANGE THE DIRECTION OF LIGHT RAYS THAT
PASS THROUGH IT. WHEN A PIECE OF GLASS IS SHAPED
WITH CONCAVE OR CONVEX SURFACES, LIGHT RAYS MAY
BE DIRECTED UP, DOWN, OR STRAIGHT, DEPENDING ON THE
CONFIGURATION OF THE LENS

⮚ A system of one or more pieces of glass bounded by spherical

surfaces, the center of which is at a common axis, termed the lens
axis.
⮚ A mechanism or system which converges or diverges light
passing through it to for
 TWO MAIN TYPES ACCORDING TO SHAPE:

• Convergent/Positive/Convex Lens It is always

thicker at the center and thinner at the sides.
Light passing through it is bent toward each
other on the other side of the lens meeting at a
point. It produces a real image on the opposite
side of the lens or where light is coming from.
• Divergent/Negative/Concave Lens It is
always thinner at the center and thicker at
the sides. Light passing through it is bent
away from each other as if coming from a
point. It produces a virtual image on the
same side of the lens or where light is
coming
 LENS CHARACTERISTICS

• 1. Focal length –the distance measured from the optical center of the lens to the film plane
when the lens is set or focused at an infinity position. According to focal length, lenses may be
classified as:
• a. Wide-angle lens – a lens with a focal length of less than the diagonal of its negative material.
• b. Normal lens – a lens with a focal length of approximately equal or more but not more than
twice the diagonal of its negative material.
• c. Long or Telephoto lens – a lens with a focal length of more than twice the diagonal of its
negative material.
• 2. Relative aperture – the light-gathering power of the lens is expressed in the F-number system. It is
otherwise called the relative aperture. By increasing or decreasing the F-number numerically, it is possible
to:
• a. control the amount of light passing through the lens
• b. control the depth of field
• c. control the degree of sharpness due to the lens defects.

Depth of field – is the distance measured from the nearest to the farthest object in apparent sharp focus when
the lens is set or focused at a particular distance.
Hyperfocal distance – is the nearest distance at which a lens is focused with a given particular diaphragm
opening which will give the maximum depth of field.
3. Focusing – is the setting of the proper distance in order to form a sharp image a lens of a camera except those fixed
focused requires focusing. A lens may be focused on any of the following.
a. Focusing scale or scale bed – a scale is usually found at the lens barrel indicating the e-settled distance in feet
or in meters. To focus the lens of the camera, the distance of the object to be photographed is measured,
estimated, or calculated and the pointer or maker on the lens barrel is adjusted to the corresponding number on
the scale.
a. Range-finders – is a mechanism that measures the angle of the convergence of light
coming from a subject as seen from two apertures. There are two types of range-
finders:
1. Split-image through the rangefinder, the image of a straight line in the object appears to
be cut into halves and separated from each other when the lens is not in focus. When the
images of the lines are aligned, the lens is in focus.
2. Co-incident image – through the eyepiece, a single image is seen double when the subject
is out of focus. Make the image coincide and the lens focus.
 DEFECTS OF LENSES

• Astigmatism - The inability of the lens to

bring to focus both vertical and horizontal
lines on the same plane. Astigmatism is
caused by axial rays (not parallel to the lens
axis). It will appear that lines of equal
density (darkness) are less dense
Astigmatism occurs when the lens fails to
horizontally or vertically. Astigmatism is focus image lines running in different
improved by stopping down the lens directions in the same plane
(smaller lens opening, larger F-number).
• Coma - Coma causes parallel
oblique rays passing through a
lens to be imaged (focused)
not as a point, but as a comet
shaped (oval) image. Coma
can be improved by stopping
down the lens.

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA

• Curvature of Field - The plane of the
sharpest focus becomes curved, not flat. It
is caused by rays from the outer limits of
the subject plane coming to focus nearer to
the lens than the axial rays (the image
comes to focus in a curved shape, away
from the CCD). This defect is not
improved by stopping the lens
• Longitudinal Chromatic Aberration - The
inability of a lens to focus all colors
(wavelengths) at the same plane on the lens axis
(shorter wavelengths come to focus in front of
the CCD, longer behind). This defect is not
improved by stopping down the lens. This is
normally only noticeable in long telephoto lenses.
It is reduced by the use of special glass elements,
referred to as ED, ID, LD or Fluorite.
• Lateral Chromatic Aberration -
lateral displacement of color images at
the focal plane (CCD). Caused by
different sizes of images by produced
by different colors even though the
image is all on the same plane (CCD).
Produces color fringing of red or blue.
Not improved by stopping down.
• Spherical Aberration - Inability of all
rays to focus at the same point. Marginal
rays (at the edge) through the lens come
to focus closer to the lens than paraxial
rays (rays parallel to the axis or center).
This causes the focus to drift as you stop
down the lens. This may be part of the
XL1 focusing problems. However, it's
just my opinion.
• Distortion - distortion causes the image of a straight
line, at the edges of the field (CCD) to bow in or out.
Bowed in, pincushion, bowed out barrel distortions.
Produced by variations of magnifications over the
field of the lens, particularly at the ends of its range
(max wide angle, max telephoto). It does not affect
sharpness, only shape of the image. It is not
improved by stopping down. Very common in
extreme wide angles and lenses with WA adap
 C. LESSON WRAP-UP SUMMARY:

• The lens of a camera is the easiest way for a photographer to manipulate the image that's projected onto a camera's imaging sensor.
While anyone can take a simple photo, camera lenses are often what transforms a shot into a truly artistic creation. Choose a lens that
fits your style, budget, and type of camera, and learn how to maximize your photographic skills.
• Different lenses support different types of photography, which is why photographers tend to carry so many. If you shoot both video
and photos, you might consider a cine lens for shooting motion. If you photograph large areas, a large format lens may be a better
choice.
• Once you've decided on your type of lens, you'll also want to consider the aperture range of your lens. The aperture allows you to
control the amount of the image that's in focus. The lower the f-stop number, the more control you'll have in using your lens.
• An aberration is an imperfection in the way a lens focuses the light it captures. There are a few different types. These affect things
like sharpness, focus, magnification, distortion, and color in your images. When designers create new lenses, this is the biggest
challenge to overcome. The presence of aberrations limits the lens’s performance in reproducing an image accurately.
 WHAT ARE THE MAIN GROUPS OF CAMERA
LENSES?
• 1. Simple Meniscus Lens
⮚ This is usually found in simple box cameras that comprise a single piece of glass with one side convex
and the other side Concave.
⮚ It is an uncorrected lens and therefore suffers from inherent defects of lenses.
• 2. Rapid Rectilinear Lens
⮚ This is a combination of two achromatic lenses with almost the same focal length.
⮚ This is corrected by some kind of lens defect but not by astigmatism defects.
• 3. Achromatic Lens 5. Process Lens
⮚ A lens that is partly corrected for achromatic ⮚ A saucer-corrected lens for astigmatism
aberration. ⮚ It has better color correction and has the ability
• 4. Anastigmatic Lens to produce the best definition of images in the
photographs.
⮚ Lens free from astigmatic and other types of
lens defect. 6. Fixed Focus Lens ⮚ A lens used in all fixed
⮚ It has the ability to focus on vertical or focus cameras. ⮚ Basically, it has a short focal
horizontal lines at the same time. length and a greater depth of field.
 WHAT ARE THE SPECIAL TYPES OF LENSES?

• 1. Macro Lenses more and is designed with a close-up bellows

⮚ The word “macro” is derived from Greek word which attachment of the camera. The longer lenses give a
means “to enlarge”. longer image and are most suitable for static
subjects and painstaking photography.
⮚ In photographic terms, a macro lens is designed with
• 2. Zoom Lenses
extended focusing capabilities to shoot a few inches
from the subject. ⮚ Allow quick adjustment to give a wide or narrow
field of vision.
⮚ Two Main Types:
a. One is meant to be used on a hand-held tripod ⮚ It can be moved back and forth while other elements
stay in place which gives the same effects as if the
mounted camera and ranges from 40mm to about
90mm with the average about 25mm. camera itself was moving towards or away from the
subject.
b. Wide angle or a lens with focal length of 100mm or
SHUTTER, EXPOSURE, FLASH PHOTOGRAPHY AND PHOTOGRAPHIC
FILTERS

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this module, you should be able to
1. Explain the importance of shutter, exposure, and flash in photography;
2. Discuss the photographic filters and type.
SHUTTER

• A device that opens to uncover the film to make an exposure for

accurately timed intervals then closes automatically.
• The action of the shutter is expressed in the different shutter
speeds which correspond to the length of time or duration of the
opening to the closing.
 TWO GENERAL TYPES OF
SHUTTER

Central Shutters – one that is located

near the lens (usually between the
elements of the lens). It is made of
metal leaves and its action starts from
the center toward the side and then
closes back to the center.
 FOCAL PLANE
SHUTTER

Is located near the focal plane or the

sensitized material. It is usually made
of cloth curtains. Its action starts on
one side and closes on the opposite
sides.
 EXPOSURE

Exposure is the action of recording radiant energy that

produces a change in a material or substances sensitive
to such energy. In conventional photography materials,
the action of exposing energy reduces or breaks down
the silver halide sufficiently to produce a latent
(invisible) record of the pattern of light intensity or in
the case of printing material, a visible record. Exposure
– is the product of illumination and time. Exposure is
computed by any of the following methods.
 USE OF LIGHT OR
EXPOSURE METER

The amount of light coming from a

source or the amount of light being
reflected by the subject is measured
by the light meter. Proper adjustment
therefore becomes simplified.
FLASH PHOTOGRAPHY

• A brief flash of light produced by burning metal wires (flash

bulb) or an electric discharge through a gas-filled tube
(electronic flash) is the most common supplemental light for
still photographs.
 TYPES OF FLASH
1. EXPOSURE WITH FLASH
• a. Shutter speed- both electronic flash unit and flash bulb provides light in a relatively high illumination
level in a short period of time. Because it is important for the camera shutter to be open for this brief
period of time.
• b. Lens opening- flash may be computed by the use of the “guide number” of a flash unit. A guide
number is usually dependent on the film speed and the light output. Electronic flash units guide numbers
are based on reflected light output of the unit based on the beam candlepower seconds (BCPS) or
effective candlepower seconds (ECPS). The guide numbers of the different film speeds and the output of
the electronic flash units is usually found on a reference table at the back of the flash unit. Guide numbers
are used to find the f-numbers at which the exposures should be make on the following formula:
Guide number (GN) = f-number
Distance in feet
 ON- CAMERA FLASH
flash on the camera or held close to the
camera with a bracket provides direct, hard
light. Because it puts the maximum level of
light on the subjects, it creates a problem of
the “red eye” in a human subject, the harsh
shadow of subjects with a near background,
and reflections from shiny spots in the
background.
 • a. Multiple flashes- more than one flash unit is used. One
is concerned with the camera with a flash cord while the
other is attached to a “slave” unit.
• b. Fill-in-flash- when you want to eliminate or add
illumination to shadow areas or subjects so detail that
OFF-CAMERA FLASH- otherwise will not appear clearly in the final picture.
• C. Open flash- the shutter speed is set to “B” and once the
with this unit, the flash can be moved
shutter is open, the flash is activated or fired manually.
away from the camera at arm’s
Then the shutter is released or closed.
length or more. When the flash unit
• d. Bounce flash- instead of the light going directly to the
is used in this manner, the
subject, it is bounced on light-colored ceilings or walls near
photographer can improve the
the subject. This will give a softer effect on the subject, and
effectiveness of the flash lighting
also diminish or reduce the harsh shadow that will be
like:
MULTIPLE FLASHES
FILL-IN-FLASH
OPEN FLASH
BOUNCE FLASH-
 PHOTOGRAPHIC FILTERS

 Used to modify the amount of light that reaches the film.

 These are discs of glass or negative which when placed in front of the camera lens, stop or another color
of light from passing through in striking the film.
 These are usually used only for black and white photography and even then should not be used for most
police photography.
 Usually made of glass or gelatin materials placed in front or before the lens.
 These are used to change the composition of available light before allowing it to strike the film.
 A transparent colored medium is employed to regulate either the color or the intensity of light used to
expose the film.
 TWO TYPES OF FILTER USED IN
PHOTOGRAPHY

1. OPTICAL FILTER 2. PARTICLE OR SOLUTION FILTER

• are made either of glass or acetate. Optical • Is used in special photographic
filters are used primarily to control exposing procedures like infrared luminescence.
energy (visible wavelength, ultraviolet,
infrared rays) and the composition of working
illumination in areas where sensitized
materials are handled
PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM

Lesson Objectives: At the end of this module, you should be able

to:
1. Explain what is photographic film and paper;
2. Enumerate the different types of film
 PHOTOGRAPHIC FILMS AND PAPERS

PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPERS

⮚ Is a chemically reactive material that records a fixed or ⮚ A type of light-sensitized material that
still image when exposed to light. produces a positive result or photographs after
development which is the final result of
⮚ It is a cellulose tape or plate where silver salts are
photography.
suspended capable of recording light.
⮚ A material suspended with an emu
⮚ Its primary function is to record the image that is
focused upon it by the lens of the camera.
 KINDS OF FILM
Ordinary/Panchromatic Film It
is sensitive to all colors,
especially to blue and violet. It
is suitable for general use in the
preparation of black and white
photographs.
 CLASSES OF ORDINARY FILM

A. PROCESS PANCHROMATIC FILM B. FINE GRAIN PANCHROMATIC C. HIGH SPEED

OR SHORT SCALE FILM OF LONG SCALE PANCHROMATIC FILM

• ❖ Low in speed and high in • ❖ It was originally intended for

• ❖ Permit short exposures under average lighting photographing an object or subject
contrast conditions and has the advantage of fine grain under adverse lighting conditions.
structure.
 BLUE SENSITIVE FILM

A film especially treated makes it

more sensitive to blue rays of light.
ORTHOCHROMATIC
/KODALITH FILM
Sensitive to all colors except red.
Good for fingerprint photography
or documents
MINICOPY FILM FILM

A film with limited

enlargement capability.
POLAROID FILM
Contains chemicals for development
and fixation. A special type of
sensitized material that produces a
photograph immediately
COLOR FILM -ALL
FILMS ENDING IN
“COLOR”
a) Color Negatives – for prints,
ends in the word “COLOR”
b) Color Transparency – for
slides, ends in the word
“CHROME”.
 COLOR INFRARED
FILM

A special type of film that is sensitive to infrared

radiation.

It is also sensitive to violet and blue-green. In is

useful in penetrating haze because of its longer
wavelength.

In investigative photography, it is useful in laboratory

analysis of questionable documents.

In the discovery of old or faded tattoos or areas where

X-RAY FILM

A material which is
sensitive to x-ray region
of electromagnetic
spectrum.
 WHAT ARE THE GENERAL TYPES OF
EMULSIONS?
1. Monochromatic Film
 Because of its limited color sensitivity, has no use in regular photography
 It is used primarily for recopying.
2. Orthochromatic Films
 These are sensitive to ultraviolet, violet, blue, green and yellow portions of the spectrum.
 They do not accurately reproduce the relative brightness of the subject of a subject as seen by the naked eye.
 It is available in sheet film only and it is not used in regular police photography.
3. Panchromatic films
 These are sensitive to all colors of the visual spectrum to assist in the selection of the correct film for any kind of work.
 These are divided based on color sensitivity.
 CHARACTERISTICS
OF B & W FILMS

Emulsion- this is the most important

layer; it contains the silver halide
crystals that react when the film is
exposed to light, causing a latent
(unseen) image.
EMULSION SPEED

⮚ The different indicators of emulsion speed are as follows:

a. ASA (American Standard Association) Rating. This is expressed in
arithmetical value.
b. DIN (Deutche Industri Normen) Rating. This is expressed in logarithmic
Value
c. ISO (International Standards Organization) rating. This is expressed in
the combined arithmetical and logarithmic values.
SLOW FILMS

• These range from ASA 25 (or lower) to approximately ASA 80. Slow
black-and-white films, because of their fine grain structure, can be
enlarged considerably without showing graininess. However, a slow film
has more inherent contrast than a fast film, and this can be a handicap
under some conditions. When the light level is adequate, a slow film is an
assurance of medium-high contrast, and a capacity for greatly enlarged
negatives or slides.
MEDIUM-SPEED FILMS

• From about ASA 100 to 250, a film falls between slow and fast,
has good grain structure, medium inherent contrast, and is
appropriate for many subjects and conditions. There are color-
negative and slide films, plus black-and-white-films, in this
speed range.
FAST FILMS

• From ASA 250 to 400 is the fast speed range, and in this range Kodak Tri-X is the
favorite of many professionals. Rated at ASA 400, Tri-X produces slightly less contrast in
a given situation, compared with slower films such as Plus-X and Panatomic-X. This
means it is slightly easier to achieve shadow detail in bright sunlight with Tri-X, though
of course much depends on exposure and development. In enlargements greater than
about 8 x 10, graininess is more pronounced in fast compared with slower films, but with
proper exposure and development, grain should not be a problem. In actual practice, I feel
that if grain shows in a print, it belongs there because lighting conditions, development,
or degree of enlargement made it so.
SUPERFAST FILMS

• There are only a few superfast films in the ASA 1000 to 3200 range, and these are for
special purposes. Superfast films are designed for use in very poor lighting conditions
when you can’t or don’t want to add artificial light, or they are used for obvious grain
effects. Eastman Kodak says in a booklet about films approximately what I said above,
“grain is usually acceptable in the type of pictures for which the film is designed.” In
other words, if you need a fast or superfast film, or must make huge enlargements that
accentuate grain, it will appear appropriate to the photograph.
 SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY

 Color sensitivity
 The different classifications of films are according to spectral sensitivity are:
a. Blue Sensitive Film – Sensitive to ultra-violet rays and blue light only.
b. Orthochromatic Film - Sensitive to ultra-violet rays and blue light only.
c. Panchromatic film – sensitive to ultra-violet radiation to blue, green or all colors.
d. Infra-red Film – sensitive to ultra-violet rays, to blue, green red light and infra-red rays.
 GRANULARITY OR GRAININESS

 This refers to the size of the metallic silver grains that are formed after the development of
an exposed film.
 The sizes of the metallic silver grains are dependent on the emulsion speed of the film and
the type of developing solution that is used in the processing.
 The rule is: the lower the emulsion speed rating, the finer the grain and conversely, the
higher the emulsion speeds rating of the film, the bigger the grains.
 Likewise a film developer will produce a finer grain than a paper developer when used for
film processing.
 WHAT ARE THE 6 LAYERS OF BLACK AND WHITE
FILM?
1. Gelatin Anti-Halation Layer- this layer prevents light from passing back through the
emulsion layer once it has already passed through.
2. Anti-Curl Backing- this layer stabilizes the laminate to prevent it from curling.
3. Adhesion Layer-this layer is used to bond different layers together.
4. Film Base- this is a transparent layer that supports the image.
5. Emulsion- this is the most important layer; it contains the silver halide crystals that react
when the film is exposed to light, causing a latent (unseen) image.
6. Gelatin Protective Coating- also known as the anti-scratch layer. They serve as a support to
the emulsion.