FPU 102

Wood Structure and

Identification
WMSU Juf-relan D. Labacanacruz-
WMSU-CFES

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Cell Wall Structure

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Alternating layers of cellulose
fibrils

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Detailed structure of cell walls

Microfibril is the basic structural units

of plant cell walls, made of cellulose 4
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Chemical composition (dry wood)
• Cellulose (40%-50%) should be 90-95%
• Hemicellulose (20%-30%)
• Lignin (25%-30%) – holds the cellulose and
hemicellulose together
• (Secondary components, e.g., extractives
and tannin)

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Distribution of the principal chemical
constituents with the various layers of the
cell wall in conifers.

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Formation of the Cell Wall

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Secondary Cell Wall:

After the cell grows completely, this wall is

formed in the inner part of the primary cell
wall. Certain cells are formed of lignin and
cellulose, providing additional rigidity and
waterproofing to the cells. Further, the
rectangular shape of the cell is also provided
by this layer. This layer provides
permeability, and it’s also the thickest layer.

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Secondary Cell Wall:

- Growth of the cell wall, after enlargement

phases is complete, consists of the formation
by apposition of additional wall material to the
inside of primary wall. This wall layers re
incapable of further surface enlargements.
- They are relatively dense.
- Contain high proportions of cellulose.
- Constitute the major source of strength for the
woody cell.
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Structure of Cell Wall

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Secondary Wall: Three Layers
S1 – A thin outer layer of the secondary wall with nearly
horizontal helix of microfibrils. (50-70 Degrees microfibrillar
structure measured from the cell axis).
S2 – a thick central layer, with the microfibrils nearly parallel to
the cell axis. Thickest and constitutes the bulk of the cell wall.
(10-30 Degrees microfibrillar structure measured from the cell
axis).
S3 – Inner thin layer made up of microfibrils roughly parallel to
those in outer layer.
- Thinner than S1 layer.
(60-90 Degrees microfibrillar structure measured from the cell
axis).

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Modifications of the Cell Wall
1. Pitting of the Cell
Wall
Pit – is a recess in the
secondary wall for a
cell, together with its
external closing
membrane; open
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/
internally to the lumen Secondary_cell_wall
on the other side.

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 Two types of cell wall pitting
a. Simple pit – formed if the
diameter of the pit cavity is
uniform or increases slightly
toward the lumen.
b. Bordered pits – characterized by
a constriction of the pit cavity
toward the cell lumen to form a
dome-shaped recess called the
pit chamber.
- The over-arching part of the
secondary wall, which defines the
pit chamber, is called pit border. A
projection of this type of pitting, in
surface view, appears as two or
three concentric rings, the name
bordered pit is derived from this
appearance. 21
Other Common forms of Pit Are:
a. Blind Pit – a pit without a complement in the
adjoining cell. Synonymous “air pit”.
b. Linear Pit – a pit with a greatly elongated orifice.
c. Ramiform Pit – a simple pit with a coalescent,
canal-like cavity, as in stone cells.
d. Vestured Pit – a bordered pit with its cavity
partially or wholly lined with projections from the
secondary wall. Formerly known or termed
“Cribriform pit”.

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Pit Pair
- Two complementary pits of adjacent cells.
These may take several forms.
a. Bordered pit pair – an intercellular pairing of
two bordered pits.
b. Simple pit pair – an intercellular pairing of
two simple pits.
c. Half-bordered pit pair – consist of dissimilar
halves, or an intercellular pairing of a simple
and a bordered pit.
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Example: Pit Pair formed between
the following pairs of elements:
long tracheid and ray tracheid Bordered pit pair

Long tracheid and ray parenchyma Half-bordered pit pair

Tracheid and another tracheid Bordered pit pair

Long parenchyma and ray parenchyma Simple pit pair

Ray tracheid and long parenchyma Half bordered pit pair

Long tracheid and long parenchyma Half bordered pit pair

Epithelial cells and another epithelial cells Simple pit pair

Ray tracheid and ray parenchyma Half bordered pit pair

Ray parenchyma and epithelial cells Simple pit pair

Strand tracheid and ray parenchyma Half bordered pit pair

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Perforations of the Cell Wall
- The major liquid conduction in hardwoods is
through the tubular vessels, which arise by
formation of openings called perforations, in the
common end walls of adjacent vessel elements.
- At the completion of enlargements of the vessel
elements, the microfibrils of the primary wall and
the intercellular substance are dissolved by an
enzyme called cellulase. This action leaves one
or more holes in the end of the walls of the vessel
elements.
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Types of Perforation
1. Simple Perforation
- A single, usually large
and rounded opening.

Simple Perforation
Plate (Radial Views

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Types of Perforation
2. Multiple Perforations
- Are formed by two or
more openings in the
perforation plate.
a. Scalariform Perforation
– formed by a series of
elongated and parallel
openings separated by
narrow strip of the Scalariform Perforation
(Radial Views
thickened perforation
plate.
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Types of Perforation
b. Foraminate
Perforation Plate

Foraminate Perforation
Plate (Radial Views)

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Types of Perforation
c. Reticulate Perforation

Simple Perforation
Plate (Radial Views

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3. Spiral Thickening
- Localized ridges on the
inner face of the
secondary wall in the form
of single or multiple
helices around the cell
wall axis.
- Usually oriented as an S
helix in the same direction
as the microfibrils in the
S1 layer of the secondary
cell wall.

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4. Dentations
- Localized wall
thickenings which
appears toothlike
(dentate) present in the
ray tracheid cells in the
hard pines.

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5. Callitroid Thickenings
- Structures appear in
surface view as a pair of
Callitroid
slightly curved Thickening
Pit
parenthesis-shaped Aperture
bars positioned above
and below the pit
aperture, normal to the
axis of the cell.

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6. Crassulae
Crasulla
- A pair of dark, curved Bordered Pit
zones lying above and
below the bordered pits
in conifers tracheid's in
surface view. They are
slight localized
thickening of the primary
wall which may sieve as
stiffening around the
primary pit fields.

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Trabeculae and Septations
Trabeculae
- Are rod like extensions across
the cell lumen from wall to wall
in conifer tracheid's. It is
apparent that the secondary
wall is continuous ad forms a
shell structure enclosing
material of a different
organization than that usually
found in the cell wall. These
are rather uncommon structure
and are believed to be
associated with fungal activity.

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Trabeculae and Septations
Septations
- Are transverse partitions in hardwood
fibers and are formed entirely of secondary
cell wall layers.

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8. Wart Structures
- Small wart like structures of 0.1 pm to 0.5
pm in diameter are found to be present lining
the inner surface of secondary wall of conifer
tracheid. They are also present in the fibers
and vessels of dicots. They are supposed to
be the remnants of protoplast or the remnant
of lignin precursors, which deposited on the
inner wall of tracheid, fibres and vessels to
form warts.
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9. Vestured Pit
- These pits are
characterized by the
presence of some
minute projections in
the pit chamber. These
outgrowths originate at
the side wall of the pit
cavity and pit aperture
by the accumulation of
cytoplasmic materials.
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 The Minute Structure of Wood
1. Elements of Coniferous Wood (Non-Porous Wood)

Longitudinal Transverse

1. Prosenchymatous 1. Prosenchymatous

a. Resinous a. Ray Tracheid Homocellular

Tracheid (Uniseriate Rays)
b. Strand Tracheid
2. Parenchymatous 2. Parenchymatous Heterocellular Fusiform
(Uniseriate Rays) Rays

a. All of a. Cells of
longitudinal ray parenchyma Homocellular
parenchyma (Uniseriate Rays)
b. Epithelial cells, b. Epithelial cells,
excreting cells of excreting cells of transverse resin canals
longitudinal
resin canals

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 The Minute Structure of Wood
2. Elements of Porous Wood
Longitudinal Transverse
A. Prosenchymatous A. Prosenchymatous
1. Vessel elements 1. None
2. Tracheids
a. Vasicentric
tracheids
b. Vascular tracheids
3. Fibers
a. Fiber tracheids
b. Libriform fibers

B. Parenchymatous B. Parenchymatous
1. Cells of axial (strand) 1. Cells of Ray Parenchyma
parenchyma a. Procumbent cells,
2. Fusiform parenchyma homocellular rays Heterocellular rays
cells b. Upright cells,
3. Epithelial cells; excreting homocellular rays
cells encircling the 2. Epithelial cells; excreting cells encircling
cavities of longitudinal the cavities of transverse gum cells.
gum cells.
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Growth Related Defects in Wood
Wood defects - Those abnormalities/ irregularities/ blemishes which
tend to lower the economic value or decorative value wood and
reduces the strength of wood.
Natural Defects
- Those abnormalities which develop in the standing tree naturally,
difficult to control but can be minimized up to some extent e.g. the
development of knot (a natural phenomenon) is difficult to control but
can be minimized by the Silvicultural operations such as pruning.
Biological Defects
- The abnormalities caused in a tree due to the biological agencies
such as fungi, insects and can be controlled by the insecticides,
pesticides, or fungicides and biological control is also done to reduce
the biological defects in a wood.

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Growth Related Defects in Wood
Seasoning Defects
- These are the defects which are created during the seasoning of
the wood. The defects created during the process are known as
seasoning defects.

Following are some defects and their reasons:

1. Cupping: When sawn log makes width wise curve.
2. Bowing: When any converted log makes lengthwise curve.
3. Twisting: When the four corners of a plank are in the same plane.
4. Checks: It is the separation of fiber that does not extend through
the timber from one face to the other face.
5. Split: It is the separation of fiber extending from face to face.

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Growth Related Defects in Wood
Natural Defects
A. Knots-a
branch base
that is
embedded in
the wood of
a tree trunk
or of a larger
limb or
branch.

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Growth Related Defects in Wood
1. Encased knot, loose knot or
black knot
- the most basic type of knot. This
sort of knot occurs whenever a
branch dies, and the tree
continues to grow around it.
- have a dark ring around it. This
ring is the old bark from the dead
branch. These sorts of knots are
not very tight. Instead, they are
sometimes called “loose knots”
because the bark around them
prevents the wood from binding
tightly around them.

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Growth Related Defects in Wood
2. Intergrown knot, tight knot,
or red knot
- found at the base of a living
branch. These knots will be
surrounded by circular
growth rings, and they are
often displayed in different
architecture and creations for
their visual interestingness.
They do not have the dark
ring as described with
encased knots.

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Growth Related Defects in Wood
3. Spike knot
- Occur whenever the
board cuts through the
branch’s length.
Typically, it will have a
tight base and a loose
end.

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Growth Related Defects in Wood
4. Knot Hole
- a hole in a piece of
timber where a knot has
fallen out, or in a tree
trunk where a branch
has decayed.

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Growth Related Defects in Wood
Reaction wood: Compression wood vs. Tension wood
Reaction wood is abnormal wood formed in a leaning
tree.
In softwood trees, the reaction wood forms on the lower
side of the lean and is called compression wood.
Compression wood is often very dense, hard, and brittle.
In hardwood trees, reaction wood forms on the upper
side of the lean and is called tension wood. Woolly
surfaces and excessive longitudinal shrinkage are often
symptoms of tension wood.

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Growth Related Defects in Wood

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 Growth Related Defects in Wood
Reaction wood is wood as it
responds to a weakening or a
lean.  As trees sway, reaction
wood forms in places that
optimize the strength of the
trunk and branches.  Reaction
wood forms when trees lean. 
Compression wood forms on
the lower side of the lean in
conifers. Tension wood forms
on the upper side of the lean in
woody angiosperms
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Growth Related Defects in Wood

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Growth Related Defects in Wood

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 Growth Related Defects in Wood
1. Diagonal Grain. When a straight-grained
log is not sawn along its vertical axis,
diagonal grain is the result.
2. Spiral Grain. When trees grow twisted,
spiral-grained logs and subsequent boards
are produced. Fibers follow a spiral course
with a twist that is either left- or right-
handed.
3. Straight Grain. The board's fibers run
approximately parallel with the vertical
axis of the log from which it originated.
4. Wavy Grain. This type of grain results
when the direction of wood fibers has
constantly changed.
5. Irregular Grain. Boards of this type have
fibers at directions that are varying and
irregular from the log's vertical axis (for
example: fibers around knots).
6. Interlocked Grain. Boards with this grain
result from trees whose fibers lined up in
opposite directions in each growth year.
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