Unit-2

Knowledge Representation and Reasoning

 Outline
• What is knowledge representation
• Different types of knowledge
• Cycle of knowledge representation
• Relation between knowledge and intelligence
• Techniques of knowledge representation
• Representation Requirements
• Approaches with example
 Knowledge Representation
• Knowledge Representation in Artificial Intelligence refers to that concept
where ways are identified to provide machines with the knowledge that
humans possess so that AI systems can become better. As it is a
universal fact that more a person knows a subject matter, the chances of
taking a correct action or decision will be higher.
• AI developers represent the knowledge of the human world in a way that
machines can understand and can make the AI systems smarter to solve
complex real-world problems. The problem is that we humans process
information in a highly complex manner.
• One of the primary purposes of Knowledge Representation includes
modelling intelligent behaviour for an agent.
 Knowledge Representation
• Knowledge Representation in AI describes the representation of
knowledge. Basically, it is a study of how the beliefs, intentions, and
judgments of an intelligent agent can be expressed suitably for
automated reasoning.
• Knowledge Representation and Reasoning (KR, KRR) represents
information from the real world for a computer to understand and then
utilize this knowledge to solve complex real-life problems like
communicating with human beings in natural language.
• Knowledge representation in AI is not just about storing data in a
database, it allows a machine to learn from that knowledge and behave
intelligently like a human being.
 What to Represent
• Following are the kind of knowledge which needs to be represented in AI
systems
 Object: All the facts about objects in our world domain. For example,
cars have wheels, the piano has keys, Guitars contains strings, etc.
 Events: Events are the actions which occur in our world. Our perception
of the world is based on what we know regarding the various events that
have taken place in our world. This knowledge is regarding all those
events. The wars, achievements, advancement of societies, etc., are an
example of this knowledge.
 Performance: It describe behavior which involves knowledge about how
to do things. It deals with how humans and other beings and things
perform certain actions in different situations. Thus, it helps in
understanding the behavior side of the knowledge.
 What to Represent
 Meta-knowledge: It is knowledge about what we know. knowledge can
be divided into 3 categories: What we know, What we know that we
don’t know, and knowledge that we even are unaware of and Meta
knowledge deals with the first concept. Thus, meta-knowledge is the
knowledge of what we know.
 Facts: Facts are the truths about the real world and what we represent.
 Knowledge-Based Agent in AI
• An intelligent agent needs knowledge about the real world for
taking decisions and reasoning to act efficiently.
• Knowledge-based agents are those agents who have the
capability
of maintaining an internal state of knowledge, reason over
knowledge, update their knowledge after that and
observations
actions. These agents can represent the world with some
take
formal representation and act intelligently.
• Knowledge-based agents are composed of two main parts:
 Knowledge-base
 Inference system.
 The architecture of knowledge-based agent
• Knowledge-base is a central component of a knowledge-based agent, it is
also known as KB. It is a collection of sentences. These sentences are
expressed in a language which is called a knowledge representation
language. The Knowledge-base of KBA stores fact about the world.
 The architecture of knowledge-based agent
• Inference system
 Inference means deriving new sentences from old. Inference system
allows us to add a new sentence to the knowledge base. A sentence is a
proposition about the world. Inference system applies logical rules to the
KB to deduce new information.
 Inference system generates new facts so that an agent can update
the KB. An inference system works mainly in two rules which are given
as:
• Forward chaining
• Backward chaining
 Knowledge-based agent
• Approaches to designing a knowledge-based agent:
 Declarative approach: Declarative knowledge refers to facts or
information stored in the memory, that is considered static in nature.
Declarative knowledge, also referred to as conceptual, propositional or
descriptive knowledge, describes things, events, or processes; their
attributes; and their relation to each other.
 Procedural approach: Procedural Knowledge refers to the knowledge of
how to perform a specific skill or task, and is considered knowledge
related to methods, procedures, or operation of equipment.
 Declarative and Procedural Knowledge
• Declarative knowledge involves knowing THAT something is the case -
that J is the tenth letter of the alphabet, that Paris is the capital of
France. Declarative knowledge is conscious; it can often be verbalized.
• Procedural knowledge involves knowing HOW to do something - ride a
bike, for example. We may not be able to explain how we do it.
Procedural knowledge involves implicit learning, which a learner may not
be aware of, and may involve being able to use a particular form to
understand or produce language without necessarily being able to
explain it.
 Declarative and Procedural Knowledge
• Real world Example: I need a cup of tea.
 Declarative:
1. Get me a cup of tea.
 Procedural:
1. Go to kitchen
2. Get sugar, milk and tea.
3. Mix them and heat over the fire till it boils
4. Put that in a cup and bring it to me
• In a declarative language, we just set the command or order and let it be
on system how to complete that order. We just need our result without
digging into how it should be done.
 Declarative and Procedural Knowledge
• In a procedural language, we define the whole process and provide the
steps how to do it. We just provide orders and define how the process
will be served.
• The main difference between two approaches are, in declarative
approach, we tell the computer what problem we want solved and in
procedural approach, we tell the computer how to solve the problem.
 Declarative and Procedural Knowledge
• Different types of knowledge can be more or less effective, given the
scenario in which they’re used. For example, you can score 100% in your
driving theory test, yet still not be able to actually drive a car. In that
case, your declarative knowledge of driving is almost useless, as you
can’t actually put it into practice until you have an understanding of the
procedural knowledge involved in driving the car itself.
• You might know what every road sign in the US means, what every
button on your dashboard does, and what lies underneath the hood, but
you don’t know how to parallel park or shift from 1st to 2nd gear.
Different Types of Knowledge
 Different Types of Knowledge
 Declarative Knowledge – It includes concepts, facts, and objects
and expressed in a declarative sentence.
 Procedural Knowledge – This is responsible for knowing how to
do something and includes rules, strategies, procedures, etc.
 Meta Knowledge – Meta Knowledge defines knowledge about
other types of Knowledge.
 Heuristic Knowledge – This represents some expert knowledge in
the field or subject.
 Structural Knowledge – It is a basic problem-solving knowledge
that describes the relationship between concepts and objects
 Different Types of Knowledge
• Declarative Knowledge
 It is the knowledge that represents the facts, objects, concepts that help
us describe the world around us. Thus it deals with the description of
something.
• Procedural Knowledge
 This type of knowledge is more complex than declarative knowledge as it
refers to a more complex idea, i.e., how things behave and work. Thus
this knowledge is used to accomplish any task using certain procedures,
rules, and strategies, making the system using this knowledge work
efficiently. Also, this type of knowledge highly depends on the task we
are trying to accomplish.
 Different Types of Knowledge
• Meta Knowledge
 The knowledge of pre-defined knowledge is known as meta knowledge.
A study of planning, tagging and learning are some of the examples of
meta knowledge. This model tends to change with time and utilize a
different specification
 For example, bibliographic data are considered as a meta-knowledge.
 The main usage of meta-knowledge is to understand and improve the
nature of user interface components and to maintain the knowledge
bases that are used alongside inference engines as well.
 Different Types of Knowledge
• Heuristic Knowledge
 The knowledge provided by experts of certain domains, subjects,
disciplines, and fields is known as the Heuristic knowledge, which they
have been obtained after years of experience. This type of knowledge
helps in taking the best approach to particular problems and making
decisions.
 Heuristic knowledge is seen as a helpmate to what you know. Some
examples of heuristic knowledge are a hypothesis, common sense, rule
of thumb, etc.
 A heuristic, is any approach to problem-solving that uses a practical
method or various shortcuts in order to produce solutions that may not
be optimal but are sufficient given a limited timeframe or deadline.
 Different Types of Knowledge
• Structural Knowledge – Structural knowledge is basic knowledge to
problem-solving. It describes relationships between various concepts
such as kind of, part of, and grouping of something. It describes the
relationship that exists between concepts or objects.
• Summary
 Declarative- explains facts
 Procedural- explain the behaviour
 Meta knowledge of other topics of knowledge
 Heuristic-knowledge of specific fields and domains
 Structural- knowledge for seeing the relations between different objects
 Relation between Knowledge and Intelligence
• Knowledge of real-worlds plays a vital role in intelligence and same for creating
artificial intelligence. Knowledge plays an important role in demonstrating intelligent
behaviour in AI agents. An agent is only able to accurately act on some input when
he has some knowledge or experience about that input.
• Let's suppose if you met some person who is speaking in a language which you
don't know, then how you will able to act on that. The same thing applies to the
intelligent behaviour of the agents.
 Relation between Knowledge and Intelligence
• As we can see in diagram, there is one decision maker which act by sensing the
environment and using knowledge. But if the knowledge part will not present then, it
cannot display intelligent behaviour.
 Cycle of Knowledge Representation
• Artificial Intelligent Systems usually consist of following components to display their
intelligent behaviour:
 Perception
 Learning
 Knowledge Representation & Reasoning
 Planning
• The Perception component retrieves data or information from the environment.
• Learning Component learns from the captured data by the perception component.
The goal is to build computers that can be taught instead of programming them.
Learning focuses on the process of self-improvement. In order to learn new things, the
system requires knowledge acquisition, inference, acquisition of heuristics, faster
searches, etc.
 Cycle of Knowledge Representation
• Knowledge Representation and Reasoning shows the human-like intelligence in the
machines. Knowledge representation is all about understanding intelligence and focus
on what an agent needs to know in order to behave intelligently.
• The Planning and Execution components depend on the analysis of knowledge
representation and reasoning. Here, planning includes giving an initial state, finding
their preconditions and effects, and a sequence of actions to achieve a state in which a
particular goal holds.
• Now once the planning is completed, the final stage is the execution of the entire
process.
 Cycle of Knowledge Representation
• Cycle of Knowledge Representation in AI
 Knowledge Representation Techniques
• How this knowledge can be represented so that a machine can make sense of it. One
has to keep in mind that there are numerous ways to achieve this, and no method is
perfect and has its own disadvantages.
 Knowledge Representation Techniques
• Logical Representation
• It is the most basic form of representing knowledge to machines where a well-
defined syntax with proper rules is used.
• This syntax needs to have no ambiguity in its meaning and must
deal with prepositions.
• Thus, this logical form of presentation acts as communication rules and is why it can
be best used when representing facts to a machine.
• Logical representation can be categorised into mainly two logics:
 Propositional Logics
 Predicate logics
 Knowledge Representation Techniques
Logical Representation can be of two types-
 Propositional Logic: This type of logical representation is also known as propositional calculus or
statement logic. This works in a Boolean, i.e., True or False method.
e.g. the sun rises from west. (false preposition)
it is sunday.
5 is a prime number.
3+3 = 7. (false preposition)
 First-order Logic: This type of logical representation is also known as the First Order Predicate Calculus
Logic (FOPL). This logical representation represents the objects in quantifiers and predicates and is an
advanced version of propositional logic.
Prdicates like relation, constant, variable, function, connectives(and, or, not etc.), equality etc.
e.g. some humans are intelligent.
sachin likes cricket.
 Knowledge Representation Techniques
Logical Representation
Advantages:
 Logical representation helps to perform logical reasoning
 This representation is the basis for the programming languages.
Disadvantages:
 Logical representations have some restrictions and are challenging
to work with
 This technique may not be very natural and inference may not be very efficient.
 Knowledge Representation Techniques
Semantic Networks
 In this form, a graphical representation conveys how the objects are connected and
are often used with a data network.
 The Semantic networks consist of node/block (the objects) and arcs/edges (the
connections) that explain how the objects are connected. This form of representation
is also known as an alternative to the FOPL form of representation.
 The relationships found in the Semantic Networks can be of two types – IS-A and
instance (KIND-OF). This form of representation is more natural than logical. It is
simple to understand however suffers from being computationally expensive and do
not have the equivalent of quantifiers found in the logical representation.
 Knowledge Representation Techniques
• A knowledge representation that represents relationships between concepts and
ideas in the form of a network. It is generally shown as a graph where concepts/ideas
are “nodes” and relationships are “edges” or arrows
 Knowledge Representation Techniques
Advantages:
 Semantic networks are a natural representation of knowledge
 It conveys meaning in a transparent manner
 These networks are simple and easy to understand
Disadvantages:
 Semantic networks takes more computational time at runtime
 These are inadequate as they do not have any equivalent quantifiers.
 These networks are not intelligent and depends on the creator of
the system.
 Knowledge Representation Techniques
Frame Representation
• It is a collection of attributes and values linked to it. This AI-specific data structure
uses slots and fillers (i.e., slot values, which can be of any data type and shape).
• It has a similar concept to how information is stored in a typical DBMS. These slots
and fillers form a structure – a frame. The slots here have the name (attributes), and
knowledge related to it is stored in the fillers.
• The biggest advantage of this form of representation is that due to its structure,
similar data can be combined in groups as frame representation can divide the
knowledge in structures and then further into sub-structures. Also, being like any
typical data structure can be understood, visualized, manipulated easily, and typical
concepts such as adding, removing, deleting slots can be done effortlessly.
 Knowledge Representation Techniques
E.g.
Slots Fillers Slots Fillers

Name Peter Title Artificial Intelligence

Genre Computer Science
Profession Doctor
Author Peter Norvig
Age 25
Edition Third Edition
Marital Status Single
Year 1996
Weight 78 Page 1152
 Knowledge Representation Techniques
Advantages:
 It makes the programming easier by grouping the related data.
 Frame representation is easy to understand and visualize.
 It is very easy to add slots for new attributes and relations also it is easy to include
default data and search for missing values.
Disadvantages:
 In frame system inference, the mechanism can not be easily processed.
 The inference mechanism can not be smoothly processed by
frame representation.
 It is very generalized approach.
 Knowledge Representation Techniques
Production Rules
• It is among the most common ways in which knowledge is represented in AI systems.
In the simplest form, it can be understood as a simple if-else rule-based system and, in
a way, is the combination of Propositional and FOPL logics.
• This system comprises a set of production rules, rule applier, working memory, and a
recognize act cycle. For every input, conditions are checked from the set of a
production rule, and upon finding a suitable rule, an action is committed. This cycle of
selecting the rule based on some conditions and consequently acting to solve the
problem is known as a recognition and act cycle, which takes place for every input.
 Knowledge Representation Techniques
Advantages:
 Expressed in natural language
 Production rules are highly modular and can be easily removed
or modified.
Disadvantages:
 It does not exhibit any learning capabilities and does not store the result of the
problem for future uses.
 During the execution of program many rules may be active. Thus
rule based production systems are inefficient.
 Approaches to Knowledge Representation
There are different approaches to knowledge representation such as:
Simple Relational Knowledge
 It is the simplest way of storing facts which uses the relational method. Here, all the
facts about a set of the object are set out systematically in columns. Also, this
approach of knowledge representation is famous in database systems where the
relationship between different entities is represented. Thus, there is little opportunity
for inference.
 Approaches to Knowledge Representation
Inheritable Knowledge
 In the inheritable knowledge approach, all data must be stored into a hierarchy
of classes and should be arranged in a generalized form or a hierarchal manner. Also,
this approach contains inheritable knowledge which shows a relation between
instance and class, and it is called instance relation. In this approach, objects and
values are represented in Boxed nodes.
 Approaches to Knowledge Representation
Inferential Knowledge
• The inferential knowledge approach represents knowledge in the form of formal
logic. Thus, it can be used to derive more facts. Also, it guarantees correctness.
• E.g. Statement 1: John is a cricketer.
Statement 2: All cricketers are athletes.
• Then it can be represented as;
Cricketer(John)
∀x = Cricketer (x) ———-> Athelete (x)s
 Logical Representation-Propositional Logic
• Propositional Logic- One of the simplest method for representing knowledge
• A statement can be defined as a declarative sentence, or part of a sentence, that is
capable of having a truth-value, such as being true or false. So Propositions can be
either true or false, but it cannot be both.
e.g.
• Paris is the capital of France.
• Everyone born on Monday has purple hair.
• Sometimes, a statement can contain one or more other statements as parts.
 Logical Representation-Propositional Logic
Atomic Proposition: Atomic propositions are the simple propositions. It consists of a
single proposition symbol. These are the sentences which must be either true or false.
e.g.
• 2+2 is 4, it is an atomic proposition as it is a true fact.
• "The Sun is cold" is also a proposition as it is a false fact.
Compound Proposition: Compound propositions are constructed by combining simpler
or atomic propositions, using parenthesis and logical connectives.
• e.g.
• "It is raining today, and street is wet."
• "Ankit is a doctor, and his clinic is in Mumbai."
• “Paris is the capital of France and Paris has a population of over two million."
 Logical Representation-Propositional Logic
• Propositional logic is also called Boolean logic as it works on 0 and 1.
• In propositional logic, we use symbolic variables to represent the logic, and we can use
any symbol for a representing a proposition, such A, B, C, P, Q, R, etc.
• Propositional logic consists of an object and logical connectives. These connectives
are also called logical operators.
• The propositions and connectives are the basic elements of the propositional logic.
• Connectives can be said as a logical operator which connects two sentences.
 Logical Connectives
• Logical connectives are used to connect two simpler propositions or representing a
sentence logically. We can create compound propositions with the help of logical
connectives. There are mainly five connectives, which are given as follows:
Negation: A sentence such as ¬P is called negation of P. A literal can be either Positive
literal or negative literal.
Conjunction: A sentence which has 𝖠 connective such as, P 𝖠Q is called a conjunction.
Example: Rohan is intelligent and hardworking. It can be written as,
P= Rohan is intelligent, Q= Rohan is hardworking. → P 𝖠Q.
Disjunction: A sentence which has ∨ connective, such as P ∨ Q. is called disjunction,
where P and Q are the propositions.
Example: Ritika is a doctor or Engineer
P= Ritika is Doctor, Q= Ritika is Engineer → P ∨ Q.
 Logical Connectives
Implication: A sentence such as P → Q, is called an implication. Implications are
also known as if-then rules. It can be represented as
Example: If it is raining, then the street is wet.
P= It is raining, Q= Street is wet :- P → Q
Biconditional: A sentence such as P⇔Q is a Biconditional sentence,
Example: If I am breathing, then I am alive
P= I am breathing, Q= I am alive, it can be represented as P ⇔ Q.
 Logical Connectives

• Truth Table
 Logical Connectives
• Truth Table
 Propositional Logic
• For propositional logic, a row in the truth table is one interpretation
 Logical Connectives
• Truth table with three propositions:

• Logical equivalence:
 Example
• Translation
 Example
• Translation
 Formalizing English Sentences
• Let’s consider a propositional language where p means ”Priti is happy”, q means ”
Priti paints a picture”, and r means ”Renzo is happy”.
• Formalize the following sentences:
 ”if Priti is happy and paints a picture then Renzo isn’t happy”
• p 𝖠 q → ¬r
 ”if Priti is happy, then she paints a picture”
• p→q
 ” Priti is happy only if she paints a picture”
• p⇔q
 Formalizing English Sentences
• Let A= ” Angelo comes to the party”,
B= ”Bruno comes to the party”,
C= ”Carlo comes to the party”, and
D =”Davide comes to the party”.
1. ”If Davide comes to the party then Bruno and Carlo come too”
2. ”Carlo comes to the party only if Angelo and Bruno do not come”
3. ”If Davide comes to the party, then, if Carlo doesn’t come then Angelo comes”
4. ”Carlo comes to the party provided that Davide doesn’t come, but, if Davide comes,
then Bruno doesn’t come”
5. ”A necessary condition for Angelo coming to the party, is that, if Bruno and Carlo
aren’t coming, Davide comes”
6. ”Angelo, Bruno and Carlo come to the party if and only if Davide doesn’t come, but,
if neither Angelo nor Bruno come, then Davide comes only if Carlo comes”
 Formalizing English Sentences
• Let A = ”Angelo comes to the party”,
B = ”Bruno comes to the party”,
C = ”Carlo comes to the party”, and
D = ”Davide comes to the party”.
1. ”If Davide comes to the party then Bruno and Carlo come too”
D→B𝖠C
2. ”Carlo comes to the party only if Angelo and Bruno do not come”
C → ¬A 𝖠 ¬B
3. ”If Davide comes to the party, then, if Carlo doesn’t come then Angelo comes”
D → (¬C → A)
 Formalizing English Sentences
• Let A = ”Angelo comes to the party”,
B = ”Bruno comes to the party”,
C = ”Carlo comes to the party”, and
D = ”Davide comes to the party”.
4. ”Carlo comes to the party provided that Davide doesn’t come, but, if Davide comes,
then Bruno doesn’t come”
(C → ¬D) 𝖠 (D → ¬B)
5. ”A necessary condition for Angelo coming to the party, is that, if Bruno and Carlo
aren’t coming, Davide comes”
A → (¬B 𝖠 ¬C → D)
6. ”Angelo, Bruno and Carlo come to the party if and only if Davide doesn’t come, but, if
neither Angelo nor Bruno come, then Davide comes only if Carlo comes”
(A 𝖠 B 𝖠 C ↔ ¬D) 𝖠 (¬A 𝖠 ¬B → (D → C))
 Contradiction and Tautology
• Some sentences may always (under any interpretation)
composite
evaluate to a single truth value:
 Rules of Inference
• Inference: In artificial intelligence, we need intelligent computers which can create new
logic from old logic or by evidence, so generating the conclusions from evidence and
facts is termed as Inference.
• Inference rules are the templates for generating valid arguments. Inference rules are
applied to derive proofs in AI, and the proof is a sequence of the conclusion that leads
to the desired goal.
Following are some terminologies related to inference rules:
• Implication: It is one of the logical connectives which can be represented as P → Q. It
is a Boolean expression.
• Converse: The converse of implication, which means the right-hand side proposition
goes to the left-hand side and vice-versa. It can be written as Q → P.
 Rules of Inference
• Contrapositive: The negation of converse is termed as contrapositive, and it can be
represented as ¬ Q → ¬ P.
• Inverse: The negation of implication is called inverse. It can be represented as
¬ P → ¬ Q.
From the above term some of the compound statements are equivalent to each
other, which we can prove using truth table:
 Types of Inference Rules
• Modus Ponens: if P and P → Q is true, then we can infer that Q will be true.
• Example
• Statement-1: "If I am sleepy then I go to bed" ==> P→ Q
Statement-2: "I am sleepy" ==> P
Conclusion: "I go to bed." ==> Q.
Hence, we can say that, if P→ Q is true and P is true then Q will
be true.
• Proof by Truth table:
 Types of Inference Rules
• Modus Tollens: The Modus Tollens rule state that if P→ Q is true and ¬ Q
is true, then ¬ P will also true.

• Statement-1: "If I am sleepy then I go to bed" ==> P→ Q

Statement-2: "I do not go to the bed."==> ~Q
Statement-3: Which infers that "I am not sleepy" => ~P
• Proof by Truth table:
 Types of Inference Rules
• Hypothetical Syllogism: The Hypothetical Syllogism rule state that if P→R
is true whenever P→Q is true, and Q→R is true.
Statement-1: If you have my home key then you can unlock my
home. P→Q
Statement-2: If you can unlock my home then you can take my
money. Q→R
Conclusion: If you have my home key then you can take my
money. P→R
• Proof by Truth table:
 Types of Inference Rules
• Disjunctive Syllogism: The Disjunctive syllogism rule state that if P∨Q is
true, and ¬P is true, then Q will be true.
• Example
• Statement-1: Today is Sunday or Monday. ==>P∨Q
Statement-2: Today is not Sunday. ==> ¬P
Conclusion: Today is Monday. ==> Q
• Proof by Truth table:
 Types of Inference Rules
• Addition: The Addition rule is one the common inference rule,
and it states that If P is true, then P∨Q will be true.
• Example:
• Statement: I have a vanilla ice-cream. ==> P
Statement-2: I have Chocolate ice-cream.
Conclusion: I have vanilla or chocolate ice-cream. ==> (P∨Q)
• Proof by Truth table:
 Types of Inference Rules
• Simplification: The simplification rule state that if P 𝖠 Q is true, then Q or
P will also be true. It can be represented as:

• Resolution: The Resolution rule state that if P∨Q and ¬ P𝖠R is true, then
Q∨R will also be true. It can be represented as
 Logical Representation-Propositional Logic
• In order to draw conclusions, facts are represented in a more convenient
way as,
1. Marcus is a man.
 man(Marcus)
2. Plato is a man.
 man(Plato)
3. All men are mortal.
 mortal(men)
• Caesar was a ruler
 ruler(Caesar )
 Limitations of Propositional logic
• We cannot represent relations like ALL, some, or none with
propositional logic.
E.g.
 All the girls are intelligent.
 Some apples are sweet.
• Propositional logic has limited expressive power.
• In propositional logic, we cannot describe statements in terms of
their properties or logical relationships.
 Limitations of Propositional Logic
• Propositional logic cannot express general-purpose knowledge briefly
• Difficult to identify specific individuals (Mary, among 3)
• Generalizations, patterns, regularities difficult to represent (all
triangles have 3 sides)
• Can’t directly talk about properties of individuals or relations
between individuals (e.g., “Bill is tall”)
 Propositional Logic VS Predicate Logic
Propositional Logic Predicate Logic
Propositional logic is the logic that deals with a Predicate logic is an expression consisting of variables
collection of declarative statements which have a truth with a specified domain. It consists of objects, relations
value, true or false. and functions between the objects.

It is the basic and most widely used logic. Also known as It is an extension of propositional logic covering
Boolean logic. predicates and quantification.

A proposition has a specific truth value, either true or A predicate’s truth value depends on the
false. variables’ value.

Predicate logic helps analyze the scope of the subject

Scope analysis is not done in propositional logic. over the predicate.

Propositions are combined with Logical Operators or

Logical Connectives like Negation(¬), Disjunction(∨), Predicate Logic adds by introducing quantifiers to the
Conjunction(𝖠), Exclusive OR(⊕), Implication(⇒), Bi- existing proposition.
Conditional or Double Implication(⇔).