CSE115/ENGR160 Discrete Mathematics

04/24/12

Ming-Hsuan Yang
UC Merced

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9.1 Relations and their properties
• Relationships between elements of sets are
represented using the structure called a
relation
• A subset of Cartesian product of the sets
• Example: a student and his/her ID

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Binary relation
• The most direct way to express a relationship
between elements of two sets is to use
ordered pairs made up of two related elements
• Binary relation: Let A and B be sets. A binary
relation from A to B is a subset of A×B
• A binary relation from A to B is a set R of
ordered pairs where the 1st element comes
from A and the 2nd element comes from B

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Binary relation
• aRb denotes that (a,b)∊R
• When (a,b) belongs to R, a is said to be related to b
by R
• Likewise, n-ary relations express relationships
among n elements
• Let A1, A2, …, An be sets. An n-ary relation of these
sets is a subset of A1×A2×…×An. The sets A1, A2, ...,
An are called the domains of the relation, and n is
called its degree
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Example
• Let A be the set of students and B be the set of
courses
• Let R be the relation that consists of those pairs (a,
b) where a∊A and b∊B
• If Jason is enrolled only in CSE20, and John is
enrolled in CSE20 and CSE21
• The pairs (Jason, CSE20), (John,CSE20), (John, CSE
21) belong to R
• But (Jason, CSE21) does not belong to R
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Example
• Let A be the set of all cities, and let B be the set
of the 50 states in US. Define a relation R by
specifying (a,b) belongs to R if city a is in state b
• For instance, (Boulder, Colorado), (Bangor,
Maine), (Ann Arbor, Michigan), (Middletown,
New Jersey), (Middletown, New York),
(Cupertino, California), and (Red Bank, New
Jersey) are in R

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Example
• Let A={0, 1, 2} and B={a, b}. Then {(0, a), (0, b),
(1, a), (2, b)} is a relation from A to B
• That is 0Ra but not 1Rb

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Functions as relations
• Recall that a function f from a set A to a set B assigns
exactly one element of B to each element of A
• The graph of f is the set of ordered pairs (a, b) such
that b=f(a)
• Because the graph of f is a subset of A x B, it is a
relation from A to B
• Furthermore, the graph of a function has the
property that every element of A is the first element
of exactly one ordered pair of the graph

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Functions as relations
• Conversely, if R is a relation from A to B such that every
element in A is the first element of exactly one ordered
pair of R, then a function can be defined with R as its graph
• A relation can be used to express one-to-many relationship
between the elements of the sets A and B where an
element of A may be related to more than one element of
B
• A function represents a relation where exactly one element
of B is related to each element of A
• Relations are a generalization of functions

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Relation on a set
• A relation on the set A is a relation from A to
A, i.e., a subset of A x A
• Let A be the set {1, 2, 3, 4}. Which ordered
pairs are in the relation R={(a,b)|a divides b}?
• R={(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(2,2),(2,4),(3,3),(4,4)}
1 1 R 1 2 3 4
2 2 1 X X X X
3 3 2 X X
3 X
4 4
4 X
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Example
• Consider these relations on set of integers
R1={(a,b)|a≤b}
R2={(a,b)|a>b}
R3={(a,b)|a=b or a=-b}
R4={(a,b)|a=b}
R5={(a,b)|a=b+1}
R6={(a,b)|a+b≤3}
Which of these relations contain each of the pairs (1,1), (1,2), (2,1), (1, -
1) and (2, 2)?
• (1,1) is in R1, R3, R4 and R6; (1,2) is in R1 and R6; (2,1) is in R2, R5, and R6;
(1,-1) is in R2, R3, and R6; (2,2) is in R1, R3, and R4

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Example
• How many relations are there on a set with n
elements?
• A relation on a set A is a subset of A x A
• As A x A has n2 elements, there are 2 subsets
n2

• Thus there are 2 relations on a set with n

elements
• That is, there are 2  2  512 relations on the set
32 9

{a, b, c}
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Properties of relations: Reflexive
• In some relations an element is always related to itself
• Let R be the relation on the set of all people consisting
of pairs (x,y) where x and y have the same mother and
the same father. Then x R x for every person x
• A relation R on a set A is called reflexive if (a,a) ∊ R for
every element a∊A
• The relation R on the set A is reflexive if ∀a((a,a) ∊ R)

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Example
• Consider these relations on {1, 2, 3, 4}
R1={(1,1),(1,2),(2,1),(2,2),(3,4),(4,1),(4,4)}
R2={(1,1),(1,2),(2,1)}
R3={(1,1),(1,2),(1,4),(2,1),(2,2),(3,3),(4,1),(4,4)}
R4={(2,1),(3,1),(3,2),(4,1),(4,2),(4,3)}
R5={(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(2,2),(2,3),(2,4),(3,3),(3,4),(4,4)}
R6={(3,4)}
Which of these relations are reflexive?
• R3 and R5 are reflexive as both contain all pairs of the (a,a)
• Is the “divides” relation on the set of positive integers reflexive?

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Symmetric
• In some relations an element is related to a second
element if and only if the 2nd element is also related
to the 1st element
• A relation R on a set A is called symmetric if (b,a) ∊ R
whenever (a,b) ∊ R for all a, b ∊ A
• The relation R on the set A is symmetric if
∀a ∀b ((a,b)∊R→(b,a) ∊R)
• A relation is symmetric if and only if a is related to b
implies that b is related to a

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Antisymmetric
• A relation R on a set A such that for all a, b ∊ A, if (a,
b)∊R and (b, a)∊ R, then a=b is called antisymmetric
• Similarly, the relation R is antisymmetric if
∀a∀b(((a,b)∊R∧(b,a)∊R)→(a=b))
• A relation is antisymmetric if and only if there are no
pairs of distinct elements a and b with a related to b
and b related to a
• That is, the only way to have a related to b and b
related to a is for a and b to be the same element

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Symmetric and antisymmetric
• The terms symmetric and antisymmetric are
not opposites as a relation can have both of
these properties or may lack both of them
• A relation cannot be both symmetric and
antisymmetric if it contains some pair of the
form (a, b) where a ≠ b

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Example
• Consider these relations on {1, 2, 3, 4}
R1={(1,1),(1,2),(2,1),(2,2),(3,4),(4,1),(4,4)}
R2={(1,1),(1,2),(2,1)}
R3={(1,1),(1,2),(1,4),(2,1),(2,2),(3,3),(4,1),(4,4)}
R4={(2,1),(3,1),(3,2),(4,1),(4,2),(4,3)}
R5={(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(2,2),(2,3),(2,4),(3,3),(3,4),(4,4)}
R6={(3,4)}
Which of these relations are symmetric or antisymmetric?
• R2 and R3 are symmetric: each (a,b)  (b,a) in the relation
• R4, R5, and R6 are all antisymmetric: no pair of elements a and b with a ≠
b s.t. (a, b) and (b, a) are both in the relation

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Example
• Which are symmetric and antisymmetric
R1={(a,b)|a≤b}
R2={(a,b)|a>b}
R3={(a,b)|a=b or a=-b}
R4={(a,b)|a=b}
R5={(a,b)|a=b+1}
R6={(a,b)|a+b≤3}
• Symmetric: R3, R4, R6. R3 is symmetric, if a=b (or a=-b), then b=a (b=-a), R 4 is
symmetric as a=b implies b=a, R6 is symmetric as a+b≤3 implies b+a≤3
• Antisymmetric: R1, R2, R4, R5 . R1 is antisymmetric as a≤b and b≤a imply a=b. R 2 is
antisymmetric as it is impossible to have a>b and b>a, R 4 is antisymmteric as two
elements are related w.r.t. R4 if and only if they are equal. R5 is antisymmetric as it is
impossible to have a=b+1 and b=a+1

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Transitive
• A relation R on a set A is called transitive if
whenever (a,b)∊R and (b,c)∊R then (a,c)∊R
for all a, b, c ∊ A
• Using quantifiers, we see that a relation R is
transitive if we have
∀a∀b∀c (((a,b)∊R ∧ (b,c)∊R)→ (a,c)∊R)

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Example
• Which one is transitive?
R1={(1,1),(1,2),(2,1),(2,2),(3,4),(4,1),(4,4)}
R2={(1,1),(1,2),(2,1)}
R3={(1,1),(1,2),(1,4),(2,1),(2,2),(3,3),(4,1),(4,4)}
R4={(2,1),(3,1),(3,2),(4,1),(4,2),(4,3)}
R5={(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(2,2),(2,3),(2,4),(3,3),(3,4),(4,4)}
R6={(3,4)}
• R4 R5 R6 are transitive
• R1 is not transitive as (3,1) is not in R1
• R2 is not transitive as (2,2) is not in R2
• R3 is not transitive as (4,2) is not in R3

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Example
• Which are symmetric and antisymmetric
R1={(a,b)|a≤b}
R2={(a,b)|a>b}
R3={(a,b)|a=b or a=-b}
R4={(a,b)|a=b}
R5={(a,b)|a=b+1}
R6={(a,b)|a+b≤3}
• R1 is transitive as a≤b and b≤c implies a≤c. R 2 is transitive
• R3 , R4 are transitive
• R5 is not transitive (e.g., (2,1), (1,0)). R 6 is not transitive (e.g. (2,1),(1,2))

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Combining relations
• Relations from A to B are subsets of A×B, two relations
can be combined in any way that two sets can be
combined
• Let A={1,2,3} and B={1,2,3,4}. The relations R1={(1,1),(2,2),
(3,3)} and R2={(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4)} can be combined
• R1⋃R2={(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(2,2),(2,3),(3,3)}
• R1∩R2={(1,1)}
• R1–R2={(2,2),(3,3)}
• R2-R1={(1,2),(1,3),(1,4)}

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Example
• Let R1={(x,y)|x<y} and R2={(x,y)|x>y}. What are
R1⋃R2,R1⋂R2,R1-R2, R2-R1, and R1⊕R2?
• Symmetric difference of A and B: denoted by A⊕B, is
the set containing those elements in either A or B,
but not in both A and B
• We note that (x,y)∊ R1⋃R2, if and only if (x,y)∊ R1 or
(x,y)∊ R2,it follows that R1⋃R2={(x,y)|x≠y}
• Likewise, R1⋂R2= ∅,R1-R2=R1, R2-R1=R2,
R1⊕R2= R1⋃R2-R1⋂R2={(x,y)|x≠y}
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Composite of relations
• Let R be a relation from a set A to a set B, and S a
relation from B to a set C.
• The composite of R and S is the relation consisting of
ordered pairs (a,c) where a∊A, c∊C and for which
there exists an element b∊B s.t. (a,b)∊R and (b,c)∊S.
We denote the composite of R and S by S∘R
• Need to find the 2nd element of ordered pair in R the
same as the 1st element of ordered pair in S

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Example
• What is the composite of the relations R and S,
where R is the relation from {1,2,3} to {1,2,3,4}
with R={(1,1),(1,4),(2,3),(3,1),(3,4)} and S is the
relation from {1,2,3,4} to {0,1,2} with S={(1,0),
(2,0),(3,1),(3,2),(4,1)}?
• Need to find the 2nd element in the ordered pair
in R is the same as the 1st element of order pair
in S
• S∘R={(1,0),(1,1),(2,1),(2,2),(3,0),(3,1)}
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Power of relation
• Let R be a relation on the set A. The powers
Rn,n=1,2,3,…, are defined recursively by R1=R,
Rn+1=Rn∘R
• Example: Let R={(1,1),(2,1),(3,2),(4,3)}. Find the
powers Rn, n=2,3,4,…
• R2=R∘R, we find R2={(1,1),(2,1),(3,1),(4,2)},
R3=R2∘R, R3={(1,1),(2,1),(3,1),(4,1)}, R4={(1,1),(2,1),
(3,1),(4,1)}.
• It also follows Rn=R3 for n=5,6,7,…
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Transitive
• Theorem: The relation R on a set A is
transitive if and only if Rn⊆R
• Proof: We first prove the “if” part. Suppose
Rn⊆R for n=1,2,3,… In particular R2⊆R. To see
this implies R is transitive, note that if (a,b)∊R,
and (b,c)∊R, then by definition of composition
(a,c)∊ R2. Because R2⊆R, this means that
(a,c)∊ R. Hence R is transitive

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Transitive
• We will use mathematical induction to prove the “only if”
part
• Note n=1, the theorem is trivially true
• Assume that Rn⊆R, where n is a positive integer. This is the
induction hypothesis. To complete the inductive step, we
must show that this implies that Rn+1 is also a subset of R
• To show this, assume that (a,b)∊Rn+1. Because Rn+1=Rn∘R, there
is an element x with x A s.t. (a,x)∊R, and (x,b)∊Rn. The
inductive hypothesis, i.e., Rn⊆R, implies that (x,b)∊R. As R is
transitive, and (a,x)∊R, and (x,b)∊R, it follows that (a,b)∊R.
This shows that Rn+1⊆R, completing the proof

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