Chapter 6

Time domain circuit analysis

Reading: chapter 7 and 8, chapter 15, 16

(Laplace) in C. K. Alexander and M. N. O.
Sadiku, “Fundamental of Electric Circuit”
Simulation software: PSpice
1
 Alexander-Sadiku
Fundamentals of Electric Circuits
Chapter 7
First-Order Circuits
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

2
 First-Order Circuits
Chapter 7
7.1 The Source-Free RC Circuit
7.2 The Source-Free RL Circuit
7.3 Unit-step Function
7.4 Step Response of an RC Circuit
7.5 Step Response of an RL Circuit

3
 7.1 The Source-Free
RC Circuit (1)
• A first-order circuit is characterized by a first-
order differential equation.

By KCL
v dv
iR  iC  0 C 0
R dt

Ohms law Capacitor law

• Apply Kirchhoff’s laws to purely resistive circuit results in

algebraic equations.
• Apply the laws to RC and RL circuits produces differential
4
equations.
 7.1 The Source-Free
RC Circuit (2)
• The natural response of a circuit refers to the behavior
(in terms of voltages and currents) of the circuit itself,
with no external sources of excitation.

Time constant RC

Decays more slowly

Decays faster

• The time constant  of a circuit is the time required for the

response to decay by a factor of 1/e or 36.8% of its initial value.
• v decays faster for small  and slower for large .
5
 7.1 The Source-Free
RC Circuit (3)
The key to working with a source-free RC circuit is
finding:

v (t )  V0 e  t /  where RC

1. The initial voltage v(0) = V0 across the

capacitor.
2. The time constant  = RC.
6
 7.1 The Source-Free
RC Circuit (4)
Example 1
Refer to the circuit below, determine vC, vx, and
io for t ≥ 0.
Assume that vC(0) = 30 V.

• Please refer to lecture or textbook for more detail elaboration.

Answer: vC = 30e–0.25t V ; vx = 10e–0.25t ; io = –2.5e–0.25t A
7
 7.1 The Source-Free
RC Circuit (5)
Example 2
The switch in circuit below is opened at t = 0,
find v(t) for t ≥ 0.

• Please refer to lecture or textbook for more detail elaboration.

Answer: V(t) = 8e–2t V
9
 7.2 The Source-Free
RL Circuit (1)
• A first-order RL circuit consists of a inductor
L (or its equivalent) and a resistor (or its
equivalent)
By KVL vL  vR  0
di
L  iR  0
dt

Inductors law Ohms law

di R Rt / L
  dt i (t )  I 0 e
i L
10
 7.2 The Source-Free
RL Circuit (2)

A general form representing a RL

t / 
i (t )  I 0 e
L
where 
R

• The time constant  of a circuit is the time required for the response to
decay by a factor of 1/e or 36.8% of its initial value.
• i(t) decays faster for small  and slower for large .
• The general form is very similar to a RC source-free circuit. 11
 7.2 The Source-Free
RL Circuit (3)
Comparison between a RL and RC circuit

A RL source-free circuit A RC source-free circuit

L
i (t )  I 0 e t / 
where  v(t )  V0 e  t / where   RC
R

12
 7.2 The Source-Free
RL Circuit (4)
The key to working with a source-free RL
circuit is finding:

 t / L
i (t )  I 0 e where 
R

1. The initial voltage i(0) = I0 through the

inductor.
2. The time constant  = L/R. 13
 7.2 The Source-Free
RL Circuit (5)
Example 3
Find i and vx in the circuit.

Assume that i(0) = 5 A.

• Please refer to lecture or textbook for more detail elaboration.

Answer: i(t) = 5e–53t A 14

 7.2 The Source-Free
RL Circuit (6)
Example 4
For the circuit, find i(t) for t > 0.

• Please refer to lecture or textbook for more detail elaboration.

Answer: i(t) = 2e–2t A

15
 7.3 Unit-Step Function (1)
• The unit step function u(t) is 0 for negative
values of t and 1 for positive values of t.

 0, t0
u(t )  
1, t0

 0, t  to
u (t  to )  
1, t  to

 0, t   to
u (t  to )  
1, t   to
16
 7.3 Unit-Step Function (2)
Represent an abrupt change for:

1. voltage source.

2. for current source:

17
 7.4 The Step-Response
of a RC Circuit (1)
• The step response of a circuit is its behavior when the
excitation is the step function, which may be a voltage
or a current source.
• Initial condition:
v(0-) = v(0+) = V0

• Applying KCL,
dv v  Vs u (t )
c  0
dt R
or
dv v  Vs
 u (t )
dt RC
18
• Where u(t) is the unit-step function
 7.4 The Step-Response
of a RC Circuit (2)
• Integrating both sides and considering the initial
conditions, the solution of the equation is:

V0 t0
v(t )   t / 
V
 s  (V0  V s ) e t0

Final value Initial value Source-free

at t -> ∞ at t = 0 Response

Complete Response = Natural response + Forced Response

(stored energy) (independent source)

= V0e–t/τ + Vs(1–e–t/τ) 19
 7.4 The Step-Response
of a RC Circuit (3)
Three steps to find out the step response
of an RC circuit:
1. The initial capacitor voltage v(0).
2. The final capacitor voltage v() — DC
voltage across C.
3. The time constant .

 t /
v (t )  v ()  [v (0)  v ()] e
Note: The above method is a short-cut method. You may also
determine the solution by setting up the circuit formula directly
using KCL, KVL , ohms law, capacitor and inductor VI laws. 20
 7.4 The Step-Response
of a RC Circuit (4)
Example 5
Find v(t) for t > 0 in the circuit in below.
Assume the switch has been open for a long
time and is closed at t = 0.
Calculate v(t) at t = 0.5.

• Please refer to lecture or textbook for more detail elaboration.

Answer: v(t )  15e 2t  5 and v(0.5) = 0.5182V

21
 7.5 The Step-response
of a RL Circuit (1)
• The step response of a circuit is its behavior when the
excitation is the step function, which may be a voltage or
a current source.

• Initial current
i(0-) = i(0+) = Io

• Final inductor current

i(∞) = Vs/R

• Time constant  = L/R

t
Vs Vs 
i (t )   ( I o  )e u (t ) 
R R
22
 7.5 The Step-Response
of a RL Circuit (2)
Three steps to find out the step response
of an RL circuit:
1. The initial inductor current i(0) at t = 0+.
2. The final inductor current i().
3. The time constant .

 t /
i (t )  i ()  [i (0)  i ()] e

Note: The above method is a short-cut method. You may also

determine the solution by setting up the circuit formula directly
using KCL, KVL , ohms law, capacitor and inductor VI laws. 23
 7.5 The Step-Response
of a RL Circuit (4)
Example 6
The switch in the circuit shown below has been
closed for a long time. It opens at t = 0.
Find i(t) for t > 0.

• Please refer to lecture or textbook for more detail elaboration.

Answer: i (t )  2  e 10t 24
 Alexander-Sadiku
Fundamentals of Electric Circuits
Chapter 8
Second-Order Circuits
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

25
 Second-Order Circuits
Chapter 8
8.1 Examples of 2nd order RCL circuit
8.2 The source-free series RLC circuit
8.3 The source-free parallel RLC circuit
8.4 Step response of a series RLC circuit
8.5 Step response of a parallel RLC

26
 8.1 Examples of Second
Order RLC circuits (1)
What is a 2nd order circuit?

A second-order circuit is characterized by a second-

order differential equation. It consists of resistors and
the equivalent of two energy storage elements.

RLC Series RLC Parallel RL T-config RC Pi-config

27
 8.2 Source-Free Series
RLC Circuits (1)
• The solution of the source-free
series RLC circuit is called as the
natural response of the circuit.

• The circuit is excited by the energy

initially stored in the capacitor and
inductor.

The 2nd d 2 i R di i
order of 2
  0
expression
dt L dt LC

How to derive and how to solve?

28
8.2 Source-Free Series
RLC Circuits (2)

Method will be
illustrated
during the lecture

29
 8.2 Source-Free Series
RLC Circuits (3)
There are three possible solutions for the following
2nd order differential equation:
d 2 i R di i
2
  0
dt L dt LC

d 2i di 2 R 1
=>
2
 2   0i 0 where  and 0 
dt dt 2L LC
General 2nd order Form

The types of solutions for i(t) depend

on the relative values of  and 
30
 8.2 Source-Free Series
RLC Circuits (4)
There are three possible solutions for the following
2nd order differential equation:

d 2i di 2
2
 2   0i 0
dt dt

1. If  > o, over-damped case

i (t )  A1e s1t  A2 e s2t 2
where s1, 2       0
2

2. If  = o, critical damped case

i (t )  ( A2  A1t )e t where s1, 2   
3. If  < o, under-damped case

i (t )  e t ( B1 cos  d t  B2 sin  d t ) where  d   02   2

31
 8.2 Source-Free Series
RLC Circuits (5)
Example 1
If R = 10 Ω, L = 5 H, and C
= 2 mF in 8.8, find α, ω0, s1
and s2.

What type of natural response

will the circuit have?

• Please refer to lecture or textbook for more detail elaboration.

Answer: underdamped
34
 8.2 Source-Free Series
RLC Circuits (5)
Example 1
 8.2 Source-Free Series
RLC Circuits (6)
Exercise 2
The circuit shown below
has reached steady state at
t = 0-.

If the make-before-break
switch moves to position b
at t = 0, calculate i(t) for t
> 0.

• Please refer to lecture or textbook for more detail elaboration.

Answer: i(t) = e–2.5t[5cos1.6583t – 7.538sin1.6583t] A
38
8.3 Source-Free Parallel
RLC Circuits (1)
0
1
Let i (0)  I 0   v(t )dt
L
v(0) = V0
Apply KCL to the top node:

t
v 1 dv
  vdt  C  0
R L  dt

Taking the derivative with

respect to t and dividing by C

The 2nd d 2 v 1 dv 1
order of 2
  v0
dt RC dt LC
expression
39
 8.3 Source-Free Parallel
RLC Circuits (2)
There are three possible solutions for the following
2nd order differential equation:
d 2v dv 1 1
2
 2  02v  0 where   and 0 
dt dt 2 RC LC

1. If  > o, over-damped case

v(t )  A1 e s1t  A2 e s2t where s1, 2      2  0
2

2. If  = o, critical damped case

v(t )  ( A2  A1t ) e t where s1, 2   

3. If  < o, under-damped case

v(t )  e t ( B1 cos  d t  B2 sin d t ) where d   02   2

40
Example

41
 8.3 Source-Free Parallel
RLC Circuits (3)
Example 3
Refer to the circuit shown below. Find
v(t) for t > 0.

• Please refer to lecture or textbook for more detail elaboration.

Answer: v(t) = 66.67(e–10t – e–2.5t) V
45
 8.4 Step-Response Series
RLC Circuits (1)
• The step response
is obtained by the
sudden application
of a dc source.

The 2nd d 2 v R dv v vs
order of 2
  
expression dt L dt LC LC

The above equation has the same form as the equation for
source-free series RLC circuit.
• The same coefficients (important in determining the
frequency parameters).
• Different circuit variable in the equation.
46
 8.4 Step-Response Series
RLC Circuits (2)
The solution of the equation should have two components:
the transient response vt(t) & the steady-state response vss(t):

v (t )  vt (t )  v ss (t )
 The transient response vt is the same as that for source-free case
vt (t )  A1e s1t  A2 e s2t (over-damped)
vt (t )  ( A1  A2t )e t (critically damped)
vt (t )  e t ( A1 cos d t  A2 sin d t ) (under-damped)

The steady-state response is the final value of v(t).

 vss(t) = v(∞)
The values of A1 and A2 are obtained from the initial conditions:
47
 v(0) and dv(0)/dt.
 8.4 Step-Response Series
RLC Circuits (3)
Example 4
Having been in position for a long time, the
switch in the circuit below is moved to position b
at t = 0. Find v(t) and vR(t) for t > 0.

• Please refer to lecture or textbook for more detail elaboration.

Answer: v(t) = {10 + [(–2cos3.464t – 1.1547sin3.464t)e–2t]} V

vR(t)= [2.31sin3.464t]e–2t V 48
 8.5 Step-Response Parallel
RLC Circuits (1)
• The step response
is obtained by the
sudden application
of a dc source.

The 2nd d 2i 1 di i Is
order of 2
  
dt RC dt LC LC
expression

It has the same form as the equation for source-free parallel

RLC circuit.
• The same coefficients (important in determining the
frequency parameters).
• Different circuit variable in the equation.
49
 8.5 Step-Response Parallel
RLC Circuits (2)
The solution of the equation should have two components:
the transient response vt(t) & the steady-state response vss(t):

i (t )  it (t )  iss (t )
 The transient response it is the same as that for source-free case
it (t )  A1e s1t  A2 e s2t (over-damped)
it (t )  ( A1  A2t )e t (critical damped)
it (t )  e t ( A1 cos d t  A2 sin d t ) (under-damped)

 The steady-state response is the final value of i(t).

 iss(t) = i(∞) = Is
 The values of A1 and A2 are obtained from the initial conditions:
50
 i(0) and di(0)/dt.
 8.5 Step-Response Parallel
RLC Circuits (3)
Example 5
Find i(t) and v(t) for t > 0 in the circuit shown in
circuit shown below:

• Please refer to lecture or textbook for more detail elaboration.

Answer: v(t) = Ldi/dt = 5x20sint = 100sint V

51
Alexander-Sadiku
Fundamentals of
Electric Circuits
Chapter 15
Introduction to the
Laplace Transform
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

53
Introduction to the Laplace Transform
Chapter 15

15.1 Definition of Laplace Transform

15.2 Properties of Laplace Transform
15.3 The Inverse Laplace Transform
15.4 The Convolution Integral
15.5 Application to Integro-differential
Equations

54
15.1 Definition of Laplace Transform (2)
Example 1
Determine the Laplace transform of each of the
following functions shown below:

55
15.1 Definition of Laplace Transform (3)

Solution:
a) The Laplace Transform of unit step, u(t) is
given by

 1
Lu (t )  F ( s )    st
1e dt 
0 s

56
15.1 Definition of Laplace Transform (4)

Solution:
b) The Laplace Transform of exponential
function, e-tu(t),>0 is given by

 1
Lu (t )  F ( s )   t  st
e e dt 
0 s 

57
15.1 Definition of Laplace Transform (5)

Solution:
c) The Laplace Transform of impulse function,
δ(t) is given by


Lu (t )  F ( s )    (t )e  st dt  1
0

58
 15.2 Properties of Laplace Transform (1)

Linearity:
If F1(s) and F2(s) are, respectively, the Laplace
Transforms of f1(t) and f2(t)

La1 f1 (t )  a2 f 2 (t )  a1 F1 ( s )  a2 F2 ( s )

Example:

 1 jt s

Lcos(t )u (t )  L  e  e  jt
 
u (t )  2 2
2  s 
59
 15.2 Properties of Laplace Transform (2)

Scaling:
If F (s) is the Laplace Transforms of f (t), then

1 s
L f (at )  F ( )
a a

Example:

2
Lsin( 2t )u (t )  2
s  4 2
60
 15.2 Properties of Laplace Transform (3)

Time Shift:
If F (s) is the Laplace Transforms of f (t), then

L f (t  a )u (t  a)  e  as
F (s)

Example:

s
Lcos( (t  a))u (t  a )  e  as

s2   2
61
 15.2 Properties of Laplace Transform (4)

Frequency Shift:
If F (s) is the Laplace Transforms of f (t), then


Le  at

f (t )u (t )  F ( s  a)

Example:


Le  at

cos(t )u (t ) 
sa
( s  a) 2   2
62
 15.2 Properties of Laplace Transform (5)

Time Differentiation:
If F (s) is the Laplace Transforms of f (t), then
the Laplace Transform of its derivative is
 df 
L  u (t )  sF ( s )  f (0  )
 dt 

Example:


Lsin(ωt )u(t)  2
s 2
63
 15.2 Properties of Laplace Transform (6)

Time Integration:
If F (s) is the Laplace Transforms of f (t), then
the Laplace Transform of its integral is
1
L  f (t )dt   F ( s)
 t

 0  s

Example:

n n!
L t  n 1
s
64
 15.2 Properties of Laplace Transform (7)

Frequency Differentiation:
If F(s) is the Laplace Transforms of f (t), then the
derivative with respect to s, is
dF ( s )
Ltf (t )  
ds

Example:

  at
L te u (t )  1
( s  a) 2
65
 15.2 Properties of Laplace Transform (8)

Initial and Final Values:

The initial-value and final-value properties allow
us to find the initial value f(0) and f(∞) of f(t)
directly from its Laplace transform F(s).

f (0)  lim sF ( s) Initial-value theorem

s 

f ()  lim sF ( s ) Final-value theorem

s0

66
15.3 The Inverse Laplace Transform (1)

Suppose F(s) has the general form of

N ( s )......numerator polynomial
F ( s) 
D( s )...denominator polynomial
The finding the inverse Laplace transform of F(s)
involves two steps:
1. Decompose F(s) into simple terms using
partial fraction expansion.
2. Find the inverse of each term by matching
entries in Laplace Transform Table.
67
The Inverse Laplace Transform

68
The Inverse Laplace Transform

69
The Inverse Laplace Transform

70
15.3 The Inverse Laplace Transform (2)

Example 2
Find the inverse Laplace transform of

3 5 6
F (s)    2
s s 1 s  4
Solution:

1  3  1  5  1  6 
f (t )  L    L   L  2 
s  s 1  s 4
 (3  5e t  3 sin(2t )u (t ), t  0
71
 15.4 The Convolution Integral (1)

• It is defined as y (t )   x( )h(t   )d or y (t )  x(t ) * h(t )

• Given two functions, f1(t) and f2(t) with Laplace

Transforms F1(s) and F2(s), respectively

F1 ( s ) F2 ( s )  L f1 (t ) * f 2 (t )

• Example: y (t )  4e t and h(t )  5e 2t

 5  4 
h(t ) * x(t )  L1 H ( s) X ( s )  L1  
t  2t
  20(e  e ), t  0
 s  2  s  1 

72
 15.5 Application to Integro-differential
Equation (1)

• The Laplace transform is useful in solving linear

integro-differential equations.
• Each term in the integro-differential equation is
transformed into s-domain.
• Initial conditions are automatically taken into
account.
• The resulting algebraic equation in the s-domain
can then be solved easily.
• The solution is then converted back to time
domain.
73
 15.5 Application to Integro-differential
Equation (2)

Example 3:
Use the Laplace transform to solve the differential
equation

d 2 v(t ) dv(t )
2
6  8v(t )  2u (t )
dt dt

Given: v(0) = 1; v’(0) = -2

74
 15.5 Application to Integro-differential
Equation (3)

Solution:
Taking the Laplace transform of each term in the
given differential equation and obtain

s V (s)  sv(0)  v' (0) 6sV (s)  v(0) 8V (s)  2s

2

Substituting v(0)  1; v' (0)  2, we have

2 2 s 2  4s  2 1 1 1
( s  6 s  8)V ( s )  s  4    V (s)  
4 2
 4
s s s s2 s4
By the inverse Laplace Transform,
1
v(t )  (1  2e  2t  e  4t )u (t )
4
75
Alexander-Sadiku
Fundamentals of
Electric Circuits
Chapter 16
Applications of the
Laplace Transform
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

77
Application of the Laplace Transform
Chapter 16

16.1 Circuit Element Models

16.2 Circuit Analysis
16.3 Transfer Functions
16.4 State Variables

78
 16.1 Circuit Element Models (1)
Steps in Applying the Laplace Transform:
1. Calculate the initial condition for L, C
2. Transform the circuit from the time domain
to the s-domain
3. Solve the circuit using nodal analysis, mesh
analysis, source transformation,
superposition, or any circuit analysis
technique with which we are familiar
4. Take the inverse transform of the solution
and thus obtain the solution in the time
domain. 79
16.1 Circuit Element Models (2)

80
16.1 Circuit Element Models (2)

81
16.1 Circuit Element Models (2)

82
 16.1 Circuit Element Models (3)

Example 1:
Find v0(t) in the circuit shown below, assuming zero
initial conditions.

83
 16.1 Circuit Element Models (4)

Solution:
Transform the circuit from the time domain to the s-
domain, we have

1
u (t ) 
s
1H  sL  s
1 1 3
F  
3 sC s

84
 16.1 Circuit Element Models (5)

Solution:
Apply mesh analysis, on solving for V0(s)

3 2
V0 ( s ) 
2 ( s  4) 2  ( 2 ) 2

Taking the inverse

transform give
3  4t
v0 (t )  e sin( 2t ) V, t  0
2

86
 16.1 Circuit Element Models (6)

Example 2:
Determine v0(t) in the circuit shown below, assuming
zero initial conditions.

*Refer to in-class illustration, textbook Ans : 8(1  e 2t  2te 2t )u (t ) V

87
 16.1 Circuit Element Models (7)

Example 3:
Find v0(t) in the circuit shown below. Assume v0(0)=5V
.

*Refer to in-class illustration, textbook Ans : v 0 (t )  (10e t  15e 2t )u (t ) V

88
 16.1 Circuit Element Models (8)

Example 4:
The switch shown below has been in position b for a
long time. It is moved to position a at t=0. Determine
v(t) for t > 0.

Ans : v(t )  (V0  I 0 R)e t /  I 0 R, t  0, where   RC

89
*Refer to in-class illustration, textbook
 16.2 Circuit Analysis (1)

• Circuit analysis is relatively easy to do in the s-domain.

•By transforming a complicated set of mathematical
relationships in the time domain into the s-domain where
we convert operators (derivatives and integrals) into simple
multipliers of s and 1/s.
•This allow us to use algebra to set up and solve the circuit
equations.
•In this case, all the circuit theorems and relationships
developed for dc circuits are perfectly valid in the s-
domain.

90
 16.2 Circuit Analysis (2)

Example 5:
Consider the circuit below. Find
the value of the voltage across
the capacitor assuming that the
value of vs(t)=10u(t) V and
assume that at t=0, -1A flows
through the inductor and +5 is
across the capacitor.

91
 16.2 Circuit Analysis (3)

Solution:
Transform the circuit from time-domain (a) into s-
domain (b) using Laplace Transform. On rearranging
the terms, we have

35 30
V1  
s 1 s  2

By taking the inverse transform, we get

v1 (t )  (35e  t  30e 2t )u (t ) V

92
 16.2 Circuit Analysis (4)

Example 6:
The initial energy in the circuit below is zero at t=0. Assume that
vs=5u(t) V. (a) Find V0(s) using the thevenin theorem. (b) Apply the
initial- and final-value theorem to find v0(0) and v0(∞). (c) Obtain v0(t).

Ans: (a) V0(s) = 4(s+0.25)/(s(s+0.3)) (b) 4,3.333V, (c)

(3.333+0.6667e-0.3t)u(t) V.
*Refer to in-class illustration, textbook 93
 16.3 Transfer Functions (1)

• The transfer function H(s) is the ratio of the

output response Y(s) to the input response X(s),
assuming all the initial conditions are zero.
Y ( s)
H ( s) 
X ( s) , h(t) is the impulse response function.

• Four types of gain:

1. H(s) = voltage gain = V0(s)/Vi(s)
2. H(s) = Current gain = I0(s)/Ii(s)
3. H(s) = Impedance = V(s)/I(s)
94
4. H(s) = Admittance = I(s)/V(s)
 16.3 Transfer Function (2)
Example 7:
The output of a linear system is y(t)=10e-tcos4t when the input is
x(t)=e-tu(t). Find the transfer function of the system and its impulse
response.

Solution:
Transform y(t) and x(t) into s-domain and apply H(s)=Y(s)/X(s), we
get

Y (s) 10( s  1) 2 4
H (s)    10  40
X ( s) ( s  1) 2  16 ( s  1) 2  16

Apply inverse transform for H(s), we get

h(t )  10 (t )  40e t sin(4t )u (t )

95
 16.3 Transfer Function (3)

Example 8:
The transfer function of a linear system is

2s
H ( s) 
s6

Find the output y(t) due to the input e-3tu(t) and its
impulse response.

Ans :  2e 3t  4e 6t , t  0; 2 (t) - 12e-6tu (t )

*Refer to in-class illustration, textbook 96

 16.4 State Variables (1)

• it is a physical property that characterizes the

state of a system, regardless of how the system
got to that state.
• Steps to apply the State Variable Method to
Circuit Analysis
1. Select the inductor current i and capacitor voltage v as
the state variables, making sure they are consistent
with the passive sign convention.
2. Apply KCL and KVL to the circuit and obtain circuit
variables in terms of state variables. This should lead to
a set of first order differential equations necessary and
sufficient to determine all the state variables.
3. Obtain the output equations and put the final result in a
state-space representation. 97
 16.4 State Variables (2)

Example 9:
Obtain the state variable model for the circuit
shown below. Let R1=1, R2=2 ,C=0.5F and
L=0.2H and obtain the transfer function.

 1 1 
 1 
v     v  v  20
Ans     R1C C
     R1C  vs , v0  0 R2    ; H(s) 
 i   1  R2   i  
0 
 i  s 2  12s  30
 L 
L 
98
*Refer to in-class illustration, textbook
99
Exercise

101
103
104