SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

ENGR. JENALYN R. QUEMADA

Objectives


Discuss the operation of diodes and explain the three diode models
 

Explain the relation of the pn junction to a diode Recognize a diode symbol and identify the diode terminals Explain the ideal diode model Explain the practical diode model Explain the complex diode model

  

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE


a two-terminal electronic device which is formed by joining an N type and a P type semiconductor material.
Semiconductor pn junction structure
Metal contacts and wire leads

(a.) Basic diode structure

Diode Symbol
Anode (A) Cathode (K)

(b.) Schematic symbol

terminal connected to the P type material is called the anode (A ) connected to the N type material is called the cathode (K ). The arrowhead in the schematic symbol represents the anode terminal and the bar represents the cathode. The arrow in the symbol points in the direction of conventional current (opposite to electron flow).

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES

Forward and Reverse Bias of a Diode

I=0A R

IF R VBIAS

VBIAS

(a.) Forward bias

(b.) Reverse bias

DIODE CHARACTERISTIC CURVE

Forward bias region

 

In the, negligible amount of current flows through the diode until the voltage across it, VD, reaches the turn-on voltage, VT which is actually equal to the magnitude of the barrier potential across the PN junction. (0.7 for silicon, 0.3 for germanium and 1.2 for GaAs) VT also called as knee voltage As VD increases to a value greater than V T, the diode current, ID, increases exponentially.

Reverse bias region

When VD becomes a small amount of ID flows through the diode, which is equal to the reverse saturation current, IS. In the reverse bias region, IS, remains approximately equal to zero until VD is equal to the reverse breakdown voltage, VBR. Reverse breakdown voltage is also referred to as Peak Reverse Voltage or Peak Inverse Voltage in the manufacturers data sheet. When VD becomes more negative than VBR, a rapid change in ID occurs and this portion in the characteristic curve is known as the reverse breakdown region.

An ordinary diode operated in the reverse breakdown region will usually be damaged due to excessive current and heat brought about by two phenomena:


1. Avalanche breakdown the high VBR causes the minority carriers to move across the junction at high speed, making them collide with atoms in the crystal. This results in the generation of additional current carriers, causing reverse current to increase rapidly. 2. Zener breakdown a strong electric field produces a form of field emission that suddenly increases the number of carriers in the reverse breakdown region.

DIODE CURRENT


The diode current defined in the characteristic curve of a semiconductor diode in the forward and reverse bias region is defined by the Boltzmann diode equation:

Effect of Temperature in Diode Characteristic

Effect on forward current  Temperature has a significant effect on the operational characteristic of a semiconductor diode.

Effect on reverse saturation current

It has been verified experimentally that the reverse saturation current will approximately double for every 100C increase in temperature

Effect on turn -on voltage, VT

The voltage across the diode is inversely proportional to the operating temperature with the diode current held constant. VD decreases by about 2 mV/0C for silicon diodes and decreases by about 2.5 mV/0C for germanium diodes.

BULK RESISTANCE


After the barrier potential is overcome, all that impedes the current is the ohmic resistance of the p and n region The sum of the ohmic resistances is called the bulk resistance Often less than 1

MAXIMUM DC FORWARD CURRENT

If the current is too large, the excessive heat can destroy the diode One of the maximum ratings given on a data sheet

POWER DISSIPATION

Power Rating is the maximum power the diode can safely dissipate without shortening its life or degrading its properties

EXAMPLE


A diode has a power rating of 5W. If the diode voltage is 1.2V and the diode current is 1.75A. What is the power dissipation? Will the diode be destroyed? Answer: P = 2.1W< 5W

Resistance Levels

EXAMPLE


Determine the dc resistance levels for the diode at

A. Id = 2mA(low level); Vd = 0.5V B. Id = 20mA(high level); Vd = 0.8V

Answer: a= 250; B = 40

EXAMPLE
 

Determine the ac resistance at Id = 2mA Determine the ac resistance at Id = 25mA Answer: 26;1.04

DIODE CAPACITANCE
 

In the reverse-bias region, transition- or depletion-region capacitance (CT) is considered. in the forward-bias region, diffusion or storage capacitance (C D) is considered.

The capacitive effects are represented by a capacitor in parallel with the ideal diode. For low- or mid-frequency applications (except in the power area), however, the capacitor is not included in the diode symbol.

Diode Equivalent Models

A diode equivalent model or equivalent circuit is a combination of circuit elements chose to best represent the actual characteristics of a semiconductor diode under a specific operating condition. Three Diode Equivalent Models:
1. Ideal Diode Model 2. Complete Piecewise Linear Model 3. Approximate Piecewise Linear Model

The IDEAL diode model

RLIMIT

IF VBIAS

RLIMIT VBIAS

(a.) Forward bias

(b.) Reverse bias

The ideal model of a diode is a simple switch.

When the diode is forward-biased, it acts like a closed (on) switch When the diode is reverse-biased, it acts like an open (off) switch

The IDEAL diode model

The ideal diode characteristic curve graphically depicts the ideal diode operation.
(1) VF = 0 V (Since the barrier potential and the
forward dynamic resistance are neglected)

VR

VF

(2) IF = VBIAS / RLIMIT

(3) IR = 0 A (reverse current is neglected) (4) VR = VBIAS

EXAMPLE


Use the ideal diode to calculate the load voltage and load current

Answer VL = 10V; IL = 10mA

The PRACTICAL diode model

+ VF-

A
VBIAS

RLIMIT

IF VBIAS

I=0A RLIMIT VBIAS

(a.) Forward bias

(b.) Reverse bias

The practical model of a diode:

When the diode is forward-biased, it acts like a closed (on) switch in series with a small voltage (assumed to be 0.7V for silicon assumed silicon) equal to the barrier potential. When the diode is reverse-biased, it acts like an open (off) switch, the barrier potential does not affect reverse bias therefore not a factor.

The PRACTICAL diode model

(1) VF = 0.7 V (Since the barrier potential is

included and the forward dynamic resistance is neglected)

(2) IF = (VBIAS VF) / RLIMIT

VF

(3) IR = 0 A (reverse current is neglected) (4) VR = VBIAS

IR
(c.) characteristic curve for silicon

EXAMPLE


Use the second approximation to calculate the load voltage; load current and diode power

Answer: VL = 9.3V; IL = 9.3 mA; PD = 6.51mW

The COMPLEX diode model

A +

0.7V

rd

rR

RLIMIT

IF VBIAS

RLIMIT

IR VBIAS

(a.) Forward bias

(b.) Reverse bias

The complex model of a diode:

When the diode is forward-biased, it acts like a closed (on) switch in series with the barrier potential voltage & the small forward dynamic resistance (r d). When the diode is reverse-biased, it acts like an open (off) switch, in parallel with the large internal reverse resistance (rR).

The COMPLEX diode model

(1) VF = 0.7 V + IF rd (Since the barrier

potential and the forward dynamic resistance are included)

(2) IF = ( VBIAS 0.7 V ) / ( RLIMIT + rd )

VF

(3) VR = VBIAS - VLIMIT

IR (

A)

(c.) characteristic curve for silicon

EXAMPLE


Using the same figure with a bulk resistance of 0.23 and load resistor of 10. What are the load voltage, load current, and diode power? Answer: RT= 10.23; VL = 9.09V; IL = .909A;VD = .91V

LOAD LINES


the simplest diode circuit analysis tool that can be used to validate the approximate diode circuit analysis techniques The intersection of the load line with the characteristics will determine the point of operation (Q-point) of the system.

EXAMPLES
1. (a.) determine the forward voltage and forward current for the diode on figure (a.); for each diode models. Also find the voltage across the limiting (a. resistor in each case. Assume rd = 10 at the determined value of forward current. (b.) determine the reverse voltage and reverse current for the diode on figure (b.); for each diode models. Also find the voltage across the limiting resistor in each case. Assume IR = 1 A.
RLIMIT = 1k RLIMIT = 1k

+
VBIAS 5V VBIAS

+
5V

Figure (a.)

Figure (b.)

TWO TYPES OF FLOW

Electron flow Hole flow

Electron Flow

When an external voltage, V, is applied across a pure silicon or germanium crystal, the thermally generated free electros are repelled by the negative terminal of the battery towards the positive terminal.

Hole Flow

when a valence electron from a neighboring atom acquires sufficient amount of energy to fill a nearby hole, it leaves another hole from where it came from. As this occurs, the hole, effectively, has moved from one place to another in the crystal structure. This movement of hole constitutes a current flow called hole flow.

EXTRINSIC MATERIALS


semiconductor that has been subjected to a doping process to alter its conductivity DOPING


adding impurity elements to a pure silicon or pure germanium crystal The added impurities can increase the number of current carriers (either electrons or holes).

Two Types of Extrinsic Materials: 1. N -Type (Negative -Type) Semiconductor 2. P-Type (Positive-Type) Semiconductor

N-TYPE MATERIALS


increase the number of conduction-band (free) electrons pentavalent impurity atoms are added. These are atoms with five valence electrons such as arsenic (As), phosphorus (P), bismuth (Bi) and antimony (Sb). pentavalent atom gives up an electron, it is often called a donor atom.

 

Free electrons are the majority carriers Holes are the minority carriers

P-TYPE MATERIALS
 

 

increase the number of holes trivalent impurity atoms are added. These are atoms with three valence electrons such as aluminum (Al), boron (B), indium (In), and gallium (Ga). a hole results when each trivalent atom is added. the trivalent atom can take an electron, it is often referred to as an acceptor atom.

 

Majority carriers are holes Minority carriers are free electrons

EXAMPLE


A doped semiconductor has 10 billion silicon atoms and 15 million pentavalent atoms. If the ambient temperature is 25C, how many free electrons an holes are there inside the semiconductor?

THE JUNCTION DIODE

A PN junction is formed when a piece of intrinsic silicon is doped so that half is N-type and the other half is P-type.

P region has many holes (majority carriers) from the impurity atoms and only a few thermally generated free electrons (minority carriers). N region has many free electrons (majority carriers) from the impurity atoms and only a few thermally generated holes (minority carriers). At no bias condition each piece is still electrically neutral The word diode is a contraction of two electrodes where di means two

FORMATION OF THE DEPLETION REGION

At the instant the PN junction is formed, the free electrons near the junction in the N region begin to diffuse across the junction into the P region where they combine with holes near the junction The N region loses free electrons as they diffuse across the junction. This creates layer of positive charges (pentavalent ions) or cations near the junction. P region loses holes as the electrons and holes recombine. This creates a layer of negative charges (trivalent ions) or anions near the junction.

These two layers of cations and anions form the depletion region. the region near the PN junction is depleted of charge carriers (both electrons and holes) due to diffusion across the junction. A point is reached where the total negative charge in the depletion region repels any further diffusion of electrons into the P region and the diffusion stops. The depletion region would then act as a barrier to further movement of electrons across the junction

BARRIER POTENTIAL


the potential difference of the electric field across the depletion region. This is also the amount of energy required to move the free electrons through the electric field and is expressed in volts. Due to the polarized nature of the depletion electric field will obviously be setup

Typical barrier potential is 0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for germanium at 25 C. Barrier potential is dependent on several factors:
  

the type of semi-conductive material amount of doping temperature

BIASING THE PN JUNCTION

No electrons move through the PN junction at equilibrium, there is no electrical current through the PN junction. BIAS


refers to the use of a dc voltage to establish certain operating conditions

Two bias conditions

forward reverse.

FORWARD BIAS


the condition that allows the current through a PN junction. A dc voltage source is connected across a PN junction in the direction to produce forward bias.

the negative terminal of the external dc voltage source should be connected to the N region and the positive terminal to the P region. the bias voltage, VBIAS , should be greater than the barrier potential.

On the negative side

The negative terminal pushes the free electrons (majority carriers in the N region) toward the PN junction. This flow of free electrons is called electron current (electron flow). The bias voltage gives sufficient energy to the free electrons for them to overcome the barrier potential of the depletion region and move on through the P region. Once in the P region, these conduction electrons have lost enough energy and they immediately combine with holes in the valence band.

On the positive side

The positive terminal pulls or attracts the valence electrons toward the left end of the P region. The holes in the P region provide a pathway for these valence electrons through the P region. The electrons move from hole to the next toward the left. holes are the majority carriers in the P region. The effective flow of holes is called the hole current (hole flow).

The Effect of Forward Bias on the Depletion Region

more electrons flow into the depletion region the number of positive ions (cations) is reduced. As more holes effectively flow into the depletion region on the other side of the PN junction, the number of negative ions (anions) is reduced. This reduction in cations and anions during forward bias causes the depletion region to narrow.

REVERSE BIAS
 

prevents current through the PN junction. A dc voltage is connected across a PN junction wherein the positive terminal is connected to the N region and the negative terminal to the P region. the depletion region is much wider

The positive terminal of the biasing voltage pulls the electrons, which are the majority carriers in the N region, away from the PN junction. As the electrons flow away toward the positive terminal, additional positive ions are created, widening the depletion region and aiding the depletion of majority carriers. In the P region, electrons from the negative terminal of the source enter as valence electrons and move from hole to hole toward the depletion region where they create additional anions. This will result to the further widening of the depletion region

The initial flow of charge carriers is transitional and lasts for only a very short time after the reverse-bias is applied. As the depletion region widens, the availability of majority carriers decreases. The electric field between the cations and the anions increases in strength until the potential across the depletion region until the potential across the depletion region equals the bias voltage.

Reverse Current


The reverse current that exists under reverse-bias condition is also called the reverse saturation current and is represented by IS. exists after the transition current dies out and is caused by the minority carriers in the N and P regions that are produced by thermally generated electron-hole pairs. The small number of free minority electrons in the P region is pushed toward the PN junction by the negative bias voltage.

SURFACE LEAKAGE CURRENT

A small amount of current that flows on the surface of the crystal Caused by the surface impurities and imperfections in the crystal structure Current are approximately equal to zero for a reverse biased diode

EXAMPLE


If the surface-leakage current is 2nA for a reverse voltage of 25V. What is the surface-leakage current for a reverse voltage of 35V? Answer: 2.8 nA

REVERSE BREAKDOWN


The reverse saturation current has been called such because of that fact that it reaches its maximum level quickly and does not change significantly with increase in the reverse-bias potential. if the external reverse-bias is increased to a value called the breakdown voltage, the reverse current will drastically increase.(50V) multiplication of conduction electrons is known as avalanche and results in a very high reverse current that can damage the PN structure because of excessive heat dissipation.