RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

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 Meaning of Research
Research means search for knowledge
Research is collection of information about a
specific topic using scientific and systematic
methods.
Research is a careful investigation or inquiry
to find solution to any problem.
Research is an effort to gain new knowledge.
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 Meaning of Research
Research is examining the validity of old
conclusions or generating new conclusion in
connection with old conclusion.
Research is a contribution to existing stock
of knowledge

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 Definition of Research

According to Clifford Woody research comprises “defining

and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested
solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making
deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully
testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the
formulating hypothesis.”

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 Objectives of Research

• The purpose of research is to discover

answers to questions through the application
of scientific procedures.
• The main aim of research is to find out the
truth which is hidden and which has not
been discovered as yet.
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 Objectives of Research
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new
insights into it. (exploratory or formulative research studies)
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular
individual, situation or a group. (descriptive research studies)
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or
with which it is associated with something else. (diagnostic
research Studies)
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables
(hypothesis-testing research studies)

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 Objectives of Research
1. To explore:- Research can be carried out with the purpose
of gaining new familiarity with a particular topic or to
gain insight into unexplored areas. Such a research is
termed as exploratory research and is often carried out
before formulating a hypothesis.
2. To describe:- Quite often a research can be carried out
with the objective of describing a particular situation,
event or an individual. Since these studies are about
events that have already taken place, these studies are also
called as ex-post facto studies.

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 TYPES OF RESEARCH
There are two broad categories of research from its application
perspective:

• Pure Research/Fundamental Research/Basic

• Applied Research

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 FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH
Fundamental research, also known as basic
research or pure research does not usually generate findings
that have immediate applications in a practical level.
Fundamental research is driven by curiosity and the desire to
expand knowledge in specific research area.

Eg: Influence of stress level on students.

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 APPLIED RESEARCH
Applied research “aims at finding a solution for an immediate
problem facing a society, or an industrial/business
organization, whereas fundamental research is mainly
concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a
theory.
Eg: An investigation to identify the healing properties of a
specific herb.

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 APPLIED RESEARCH
BASIS OF COMPARISON BASIC RESEARCH APPLIED RESEARCH
Meaning Basic Research refers to the Applied Research is the
study that is aimed at expanding research that is designed to
the existing base of scientific solve specific practical
knowledge. problems or answer certain
questions.
Purpose Findings of significance and Findings of practical relevance
value to society in general and value to manager(s) in
organization(s)
Nature Theoretical Practical
Concerned with Developing scientific Development of technology and
knowledge and predictions technique

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 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical
data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or
experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or
generate new ideas for research.
Qualitative Research is a method that focuses on obtaining data through
open-ended and conversational communication.

Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social

sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health
sciences, history, etc.

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 QUATITATIVE RESEARCH

Quantitative research is the process of collecting and analyzing

numerical data. It can be used to find patterns and averages,
make predictions, test causal relationships, and generalize
results to wider populations.
This method of research is dependent on the measurement of
quantity or amount, not the quality of the product.
Eg: Survey research
Experimental research

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 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

Descriptive research is a type of research that is used to

describe the characteristics of a population. It collects data
that are used to answer a wide range of what, when, and how
questions pertaining to a particular population or group.
Attempts to describe systematically a situation, problem,
phenomenon, service or program or provides information
about conditions of a community or describes attitudes towards
an issue.

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 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

Eg: To describe the types of service provided by an

organization
The administrative structure of an organization
How a child feels living in a house with domestic violence
The attitudes of employees towards management.

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 Ex-post facto Research
Ex post facto study or after-the-fact research is a category of
research design in which the investigation starts after the
fact has occurred without interference from the researcher.
When the researcher wants to study the cause of an event
which has already occurred as an effect of the cause, then the
research conducted is known as 'ex post facto' research.
For example, a researcher is interested in how weight
influences self-esteem levels in adults.. This is an ex post facto
design because a pre-existing characteristic (weight) was used
to form the groups.
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 Explanatory Research

Explanatory research is a research methodology that aims to

define the “why” behind a certain phenomena. It uses
reasoning and connects different ideas to define a cause and
effect based relationships that highlights the factors or reasons
behind the happening of a certain event.
Eg: Why do undergraduate students obtain higher average
grades in the first semester than in the second semester?
How does marital status affect labor market participation?

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 Exploratory Research
Exploratory research is a methodology approach that
investigates research questions that have not previously
been studied in depth.
It is defined as a research used to investigate a problem which
is not clearly defined.
This is when a study is undertaken with the objective of either
to explore an area where little is known or to investigate the
possibilities of undertaking a particular research study.
Eg: a study into the implications of covid-19 pandemic into the
global economy
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 • When a study is carried out to
Feasibility determine its feasibility it is
called a feasibility study or
study pilot study.

• The main emphasis in a

Correlation correlation study is to discover or
establish the existence of a
study relationship/association/interdepen
dence between two variables

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 Significance of Research
1. To make governmental policies based on which decisions
can be made.
• Government’s budget – analysis of the needs and desires of
the people and on the availability of revenues. (cost is to be
met with probable revenue) – device alternative policies and
examine the consequences of each alternatives.
• Collecting information on the economic and social structure
of the nation – current situation and future changes to take
place.

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 Significance of Research
2. It helps in Market research - investigation of structure and
solving various development of the market – formulating efficient
policies for purchasing, production and sales
operational and
planning Operations research – application of mathematical,
problems of logical and analytical techniques to the solution of
business and business problems.
industry.
Motivation research – why people behave as they
do is mainly concerned with market characteristics

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 Significance of Research
Product research – Developing a a new product requires a huge amount
of research. The organizations study the existing products and their
market along with the customer demands and needs.

Advertising research – The aim of this research is to understand the

brand impact along with the product impact and the advertising
effect on the minds of the audience.

Case Studies – businesses desire to have a comprehensive study

about customer or a product or service for a given purpose.

Competition assessment – This helps the companies to identify the

shortcomings in their own product and modify in accordance to the
market and customer preference.
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 RESEARCH PROCESS
Formulating Extensive Development
Preparing the
the research literature of working
research design
problem survey hypothesis

Determining
Collection of Analysis of Hypothesis
the sample
data data testing
design

Interpret and
report

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 CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and
common concepts be used.
2. The research procedure should be described in sufficient detail
to permit another researcher to repeat the research for further
advancement.
3. The research design should be thoroughly planned
4. High ethical standards applied.
5. Limitations frankly revealed.
6. Findings presented unambiguously.
7. Conclusions justified.
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 RESEARCH PROBLEM

A research problem is a specific issue, difficulty, contradiction,

or gap in knowledge that you will aim to address in your
research.
It refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in
the context of either theoretical or practical situation and wants
to obtain a solution for the same.
Researcher might look for practical problems aimed at
contributing to change, or theoretical problems aimed at
expanding knowledge.
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 COMPONENTS OF A RESEARCH
PROBLEM
a) An individual or a group with some difficulty or problem
b) Objectives of the research to be attained
c) Alternative means for obtaining the objective
d) Doubt in regard to selection of alternatives
The existence of alternative courses of action is not enough. To
experience a problem the researcher must have some doubt as to
which alternative to select. Without such a doubt there can be no
problem. This means that research must answer the question
concerning the relative effi­ciency of the possible alternative.
e) There must be some environments to which the difficulty pertains

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 CRITERIA FOR SELECTING A
PROBLEM
1. Overdone subject should be avoided – no new light to be
thrown
2. Controversial subject should not be a choice
3. Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided
4. The subject selected for research should be familiar and
feasible so that the related research material or source of
research are within one’s reach.
5. The importance of subject, qualification of the researcher,
the4 costs involved, the time factor also be considered.

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 TECHNIQUES INVOLVED IN DEFINING A PROBLEM

The research problem should be defined in a systematic

manner, giving due weightage to all relating points.
1. Statement of the problem in a general way
2. Understanding the nature of the problem
3. Surveying the available literature
4. Developing the ideas through discussions
5. Rephrasing the research problem

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 RESEARCH DESIGN
Research design refers to the framework of market research
methods and techniques that are chosen by a researcher.

The design includes an outline of what the researcher will do

from writing the hypothesis and its operational implications to
the final analysis of data.

Research design is a conceptual structure.

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 CONCEPTS IN RESEARCH DESIGN

• Variable: parameter that keeps on changing – having quantitative

value – Eg: income, expenditure, weight, etc.

• Independent variable: The variable that brings change in another variable (the cause)
• Dependent variable: The variable that is changed by the independent variable (the
effect)

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 CONCEPTS IN RESEARCH DESIGN
• Discrete Variable: Which are countable in a finite amount of
time
Eg: Number of students present. number of red marbles in a
jar.
• Continuous Variable: Continuous variables are numeric
variables that have an infinite number of values between any
two values.
Eg:

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 CONCEPTS IN RESEARCH DESIGN
• Extraneous Variable: Independent variables that are not
related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the
dependent variable.
Eg: Participants’ interest in the subject
Demographic variations
Gender, time of day of testing etc.
• Control Group: The group or standard to which everything
is compared.

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 CONCEPTS IN RESEARCH DESIGN
• Experimental Group: The group being tested with the
independent variable.
• Constants: All factors which are not allowed to change
during the experiment.
• Confounded relationship: when the dependent variable is
not free from the influence of extraneous variables, the
relationship between the dependent and independent
variables is said to the confounded by an extraneous variable.

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 CONCEPTS IN RESEARCH DESIGN
• Research Hypothesis: When a prediction or a hypothesized
relationship is to be tested by scientific methods, it is termed
as research hypothesis.
• Non-Experimental hypothesis: Research in which an
independent variable is not manipulated is called non-
experimental hypothesis testing.
Eg: Whether intelligence affects reading ability, randomly
selects 50 students to test intelligence and reading ability –
coefficient of correlation between two sets of scores –
intelligence is not manipulated.
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 CONCEPTS IN RESEARCH DESIGN

• Experimental Hypothesis: Research in which the

independent variable is manipulated is termed ‘experimental
hypothesis testing research’.
Eg: selects 50students – offer course in statistics – two groups
– 25 to Group A, usual studies – 25 to Group B, special studies
program. Administer a test to judge the effectiveness of the
training program – experimental hypothesis, training program
is manipulated.

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 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

1. Exploratory Research studies

2. Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Studies
3. Hypothesis testing research design (Experimental
Research designs)

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 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
Exploratory research is a methodology approach that
investigates research questions that have not previously been
studied in depth.
• It is also termed as formulative research studies
• The main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a
problem for more precise investigation from an operational
point of view
• Studies are undertaken when there is not enough information
• The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of
ideas and insights.
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 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
Techniques employs in exploratory research design:
• Primary Research
Survey methodology
Focus groups
Interviews
• Secondary Research
Case studies
Literature reviews
Experience surveys, polls etc.
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 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Studies:

Descriptive research design is a type of research design that

aims to obtain information to systematically describe a
phenomenon, situation, or population
Concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular
individual or a group.
What, when, where not why
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 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
In a diagnostic research design, the researcher is trying to
evaluate the cause of a specific problem or phenomenon.

This research design is used to understand more in detail the

factors that are creating problems in the company.
Steps:
1. Inception – when
2. Diagnosis – cause of the issue
3. Solution

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 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Hypothesis testing research design (Experimental Research

designs) is a statistical concept to verify the plausibility of a
hypothesis that is based on data samples derived from a given
population.

Use of procedures or experiments are used to collect data.

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 Steps involved in conducting an experimental study

Identificatio Developing
Construct Analysis the
n and Formulation and Report the
the data and test
definition of of hypothesis experimental findings
experiment hypothesis
problem design

Construct and Determine place,

Select the sample Group or pair validate an time and
subjects subjects instrument to duration of
measure experiment

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Basic Principles of Experimental Design
The main purpose of the
Randomization

Replication

Local Control
The random process Is the repetition of a principle of local control
implies that every research study, generally is to increase the
possible allotment of with different situations efficiency of an
treatments has the same and different subjects, to experimental design by
probability. determine if the basic decreasing the
findings of the original experimental error.
The purpose of
randomization is to study can be applied to Blocking and grouping
remove bias and other other participants and of the experimental units
sources of extraneous circumstances. – homogenous groups.
variation which are not For balanced results
controllable. some kind of variation is
introduced

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 SAMPLING DESIGN

The selected
respondents is called a
‘sample’
and the selection
process is called
Census inquiry ‘sampling technique
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 SAMPLE DESIGN

Let the population size be N and if a part of size n (which is <

N) of this population is selected according to some rule for
studying some characteristic of the population,
The group consisting of these n units is known as ‘sample’.
Researcher must prepare a sample design for his study
i.e., he must plan how a sample should be selected and of what
size such a sample would be.

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 SAMPLE DESIGN

• A sample design is a
definite plan for obtaining a
sample from a given
population.
• It refers to the technique or
the procedure the researcher
would adopt in selecting
items for the sample.

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 STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN

Type of universe Sampling Unit

Source List

Parameters of
Size of Sample
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 STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN
1. Type of Universe – define the set of objects. Finite or
infinite.
Eg: population of a city, number of workers in a factory,
number of starts in the sky, number of listeners of a radio
program, throwing of a dice etc.
2. Sampling Unit – List that can present the population.
Eg: geographical – state, district, village etc., social unit –
family, club, school etc., or individual.

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 STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN
3. Source List - It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from
which sample is to be drawn. It contains the names of all
items of a universe.
4. Size of Sample – The number of items to be selected from
the universe to constitute a sample. It should be optimum.
o Size - costs
5. Parameters of Interest – Define the specific population
parameter. Estimating proportion of persons, averages etc.

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 STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN
6. Budgetary Constraint - Cost considerations, from
practical point of view, have a major impact upon decisions
relating to not only the size of the sample but also to the
type of sample.
7. Sampling Procedure – Finally, the researcher must decide
the type of sample he will use i.e., he must decide about the
technique to be used in selecting the items for the sample
oType of the sample
oTechniques to be used in selecting the sample.

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TYPES OF SAMPLE DESIGNS
Sampling Methods

Probability Sampling Non-probability Sampling

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 TYPES OF SAMPLE DESIGNS
Probability Sampling - is a sampling technique where a
researcher sets a selection of a few criteria and chooses
members of a population randomly.
All the members have an equal opportunity to be a part of the
sample with this selection parameter.
Non-probability Sampling - the researcher chooses members
for research at random. This sampling method is not a fixed or
predefined selection process.
All elements of population may not have equal opportunities.

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Probability Sampling

Simple Random Sampling

Cluster Sampling

Systematic Sampling

Stratified Random Sampling

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 Simple Random Sampling

It is a reliable method of obtaining information where every

single member of a population is chosen randomly, merely by
chance.
Each individual has the same probability of being chosen to be
a part of a sample.

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Simple Random Sampling

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 Cluster Sampling
It is a method where the researchers divide the entire
population into sections or clusters that represent a population.
Clusters are identified and included in a sample based on
demographic parameters like age, sex, location, etc. 

Cluster sampling is defined as a sampling method where the

researcher creates multiple clusters of people from a
population where they are indicative of homogeneous
characteristics and have an equal chance of being a part of
the sample.
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 Systematic Sampling

Systematic sampling is a statistical method that researchers use

to zero down on the desired population they want to research.
Researchers calculate the sampling interval by dividing the
entire population size by the desired sample size.
Systematic sampling is an extended implementation of
probability sampling in which each member of the group is
selected at regular periods to form a sample.

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Systematic Sampling

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 Stratified Random Sampling

It is a method in which the researcher divides the population

into smaller groups that don’t overlap but represent the entire
population.
While sampling, these groups can be organized and then draw
a sample from each group separately.
Members in each of these groups should be distinct so that
every member of all groups get equal opportunity to be
selected using simple probability. This sampling method is also
called “random quota sampling”.
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Stratified Random Sampling

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 DATA COLLECTION

The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been
defined.
• Primary Data - those which are collected afresh and for the first time,
and thus happen to be original in character.
• Secondary Data - those which have already been collected by
someone else and which have already been passed through the
statistical process.

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 METHODS OF PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION

1. Observation method,
2. Interview method,
3. Through questionnaires,
4. Through schedules

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 Observation Method

Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of

data collection for the researcher, when it serves a
formulated research purpose, is systematically planned
and recorded and is subjected to checks and controls on
validity and reliability.
The information is sought by way of investigator’s own
direct observation without asking from the respondent.

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 Observation Method

What should be observed?

How the observation should be Structured observation
recorded?
Descriptive studies
How the accuracy of the
observation can be ensured?

Controlled (Natural setting) and

Uncontrolled observation
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 Observation Method
Advantages

1. Subjective bias is eliminated,

2. The information obtained under this method relates to what
is currently happening; it is not complicated by either the
past behavior or future intentions or attitudes.
3. This method is independent of respondents’ willingness to
respond

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 Observation Method

Disadvantages
1. it is an expensive method.
2. the information provided by this method is very limited
3. sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the
observational task.

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 Interview Method
The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of
oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses.
This method can be used through personal interviews and, if
possible, through telephone interviews.
• structured interviews - Such interviews involve the use of a set
of predetermined questions and of highly standardized
techniques of recording.
• Unstructured interviews - Characterized by a flexibility of
approach to questioning, do not follow predetermined questions
and standardized techniques.

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 Interview Method
Advantages
(i) More information and that too in greater depth can be obtained.
(ii) Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any, of
the respondents.
(iii) There is greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity to
restructure questions is always there, specially in case of unstructured
interviews.
(iv) Observation method can as well be applied to recording verbal
answers to various questions.
(v) Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this
method.
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 Interview Method
Disadvantages
(i) It is a very expensive method, specially when large and widely
spread geographical sample is taken.
(ii) There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as
that of the respondent;
(iii) Certain types of respondents such as important officials or
executives or people in high income groups may not be easily
approachable under this method
(iv) This method is relatively more-time-consuming.
(v) The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over-stimulate the
respondent. – false information
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 Questionnaires

In this method a questionnaire

is sent (usually by post) to the
persons concerned with a
request to answer the questions
and return the questionnaire.
A questionnaire consists of a
number of questions printed or
typed in a definite order on a
form or set of forms.
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 Aspects of Questionnaires

1. General form:– structured or unstructured questionnaires -

Structured questionnaires are those questionnaires in which
there are definite, concrete and pre-determined questions.
The form of the question may be either closed (i.e., of the type
‘yes’ or ‘no’) or open (i.e., inviting free response) but should
be stated in advance.
Thus a highly structured questionnaire is one in which all
questions and answers are specified.

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 Aspects of Questionnaires
2. Questions sequence - The question-sequence must be clear
and smoothly-moving.
The relation of one question to another should be readily
apparent to the respondent, with questions that are easiest to
answer being put in the beginning.
1. questions that put too great a strain
on the memory or intellect of the
respondent; Avoid such questions
2. questions of a personal character;
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 Aspects of Questionnaires

3. Question formulation and wording - Each question must

be very clear for any sort of misunderstanding can do
irreparable harm to a survey.
In general, all questions should meet the following standards:
a) Should be easily understood
b) Should be simple – convey only one thought at a time
c) Should be concrete – to the respondent’s point of thinking.

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 Essentials of Questionnaires

 Questionnaires should be short and simple.

 Size of the questionnaire should be kept to minimum.
 Questions should proceed in logical sequence – moving from
easy to more difficult questions.
 Personal and intimate questions should be left to the end.
 Technical terms and vague expressions should be avoided.
 Questions may be dichotomous, multiple choice or open-
ended.
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 Questionnaires

Advantages
1. There is low cost even when the universe is large and is
widely spread geographically.
2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer.
3. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out
answers.
4. Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can
be made more dependable and reliable.
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 Questionnaires
1. Disadvantages
2. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires.
3. It can be used only when respondents are educated and
cooperating.
4. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
5. This method is likely to be the slowest of all.
6. There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or
omission of replies altogether to certain questions;
interpretation of omissions is difficult.

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 Schedules

Collecting data by sending

schedules through
enumerators or interviewers.
A schedule is a structure of
set of questions on a given
topic which are asked by the
interviewer or enumerator
personally.

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 Difference between Questionnaires & Schedule
• Questionnaires are sent • Schedules are filled by
through mail and no further enumerator or researcher.
assistance from the sender • Costly, requires filed workers
• Questionnaire is cheaper
method
• Non response is low
• Non response is high
• Identify of person is known
• Identity of response is
unknown • Information is collected well
• Very slow method in time
• No personal contact. • Direct personal contact
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 Other tools of data collection
• Direct measurement – Changes can be measured directly:
amount of money spent on project or program, number of
visits to a hospital, changes in blood sugar level, crop yield
etc.
• Review of secondary data sources – Government statistics,
NGO reports, newspaper/website articles, hospital records,
research studies, community records etc..
• Informal monitoring – talking to different people, vising a
field, reading emails and reports etc.

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 Module – IV
Processing and Analysis of Data

Processing implies editing, coding, classification and

tabulation of collected data so that they are amenable to
analysis.
The term analysis refers to the computation of certain
measures along with searching for patterns of relationship that
exist among data-groups.

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 Steps in processing

1. Editing: Editing of data is a process of examining the

collected raw data (specially in surveys) to detect errors and
omissions and to correct these when possible.
Editing involves a careful scrutiny of the completed
questionnaires and/or schedules.
Editing is done to assure that the data are accurate, consistent
with other facts gathered, uniformly entered, as completed as
possible and have been well arranged to facilitate coding and
tabulation.
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 Steps in Processing
Types of editing - Field editing & Central editing
• Field editing – is the preliminary editing by a filed supervisor on
the same day as the interview to find out technical errors, to
check the legibility of handwriting and clarify responses that are
logically or conceptually inconsistent.
• Central editing - should take place when all forms or schedules
have been completed and returned to the office.
In case of inappropriate on missing replies, the editor can
sometimes determine the proper answer by reviewing the other
information in the schedule.
At times, the respondent can be contacted for clarification.
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 Steps in Processing

2. Coding: Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or

other symbols to answers so that responses can be put into a
limited number of categories or classes. Such classes should be
appropriate to the research problem under consideration.
3. Classification: Once the data is collected it is to be divided
into homogeneous groups for further analysis on the basis of
common characteristics.
Data having a common characteristic are placed in one class and
in this way the entire data get divided into a number of groups or
classes.
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 Steps in Processing

• Classification according to attributes - Data are classified on

the basis of descriptive characteristics (such as literacy, sex,
honesty, etc.) – statistics of attributes.
• Classification according to class-intervals – data classified
on the basis of numerical characteristics (such as income,
production, age, weight etc.) which can be measured through
some statistical units. – statistics of variables.
• Class intervals have an upper limit and lower limits – class
limits.
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 Steps in Processing
4. Tabulation – is the process of summarizing raw data and
displaying in the compact form.
Why tabulation is essential?
a) It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive
statement to a minimum
b) It facilitates the process of comparison
c) It provides the basis for various statistical computations.
d) It facilitates the summation of items and the direction of
errors and omissions.

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 Tabulation – types of tables
i. Simple table/Frequency
distribution - Under it,
the different attribute
are stated in the left
hand column and the
frequency or extend of
occurrence of each of
theses classed are
written in another
column – Univariate
analysis
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 Tabulation – types of tables
ii. Complex or cross table
– Bivariate or
multivariate analysis.

Bivariate -  two different

variables. The analysis of
this type of data deals with
causes and relationships
and the analysis is done to
find out the relationship
among the two variables
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 Preparation of a table

1. Title of the table - give suitable heading to each table which should be short and
appropriate
2. Sub headings and captions - subheadings to different columns and rows must be
given. Captions are given to the various classifications made like income, age, sex etc.
3. Size of the column- each column must have the correct size which make them look
more attractive
4. Arrangement of items in rows and columns - items must be arranged in one order
like alphabetically, chronologically etc.
5. Totals - the total for different columns must be different.
6. Demarcation of columns - If columns have been divided further into sub groups, they
should be in a suitable order and sub headings
7. Footnotes - If there is anything special about the table or figures which need to be
bought attention to, the same should be mentioned in a footnote
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 ANALYSIS OF DATA
Data analysis tool
Measure Process of systematically
Measure Measure Measure applying statistical
of Otherto describe and
of central of of techniques
relationshi measures
illustrate data
tendency dispersion asymmetry
p

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 Analysis of Data

1. Central tendency (statistical average) is the point about

which items have a tendency to cluster.
Common central tendency tools are average or mean, median,
mode, geometric mean and harmonic mean.
2. Measure of Dispersion (also known as scatter, spread or
variation) measures the extent to which the items vary from
central value.
Methods: Range, Mean deviation, standard deviation.

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 Analysis of Data

3. Measure of asymmetry – The tools used under it are

skewness and kurtosis.
Skewness is a measure that refers to the extent of symmetry or
asymmetry in a distribution.
It is used to describe the shape of a distribution.
Kurtosis is a measure that indicates the degree to which a
curve of a frequency distribution is peaked or flat-topped

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Analysis of Data

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 Analysis of Data

4. Measure of relationship – Correlation and coefficient is

commonly used to measure the relationship.
Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation is the frequently used
measure in case of statistics of variables, whereas Yule’s
coefficient of association is used in case of statistics of
attributes.
Multiple correlation coefficient, partial correlation coefficient,
regression analysis, etc., are other important measures often
used by a researcher.
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 Analysis of Data
5. Other measures – Index numbers and analysis of time
series
Index numbers are indicators which reflect the relative changes
in the level of a certain phenomenon in any given period called
the current period with respect to its values in some other
period called the base period selected primarily for this
comparison.
A time series is an arrangement of statistical data in
accordance with its time of occurrence.

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 Testing Hypothesis

Hypothesis – mere assumption or some supposition to be

proved or disproved.
A research hypothesis is a predictive statement, capable of being
tested by scientific methods, that relates an independent variable
to some dependent variable.
Eg: “Students who receive counselling will show a greater
increase in creativity than students not receiving counselling”
Or
“the automobile A is performing as well as automobile B.”
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 Procedure for testing hypothesis
1. Set up a null hypothesis (H0) and an alternative hypothesis
(H1)
2. Decide the appropriate test criterion (Such as Z-test, t-test,
Chi-square test, F-test)
3. Specify level of significance – Usually it 5% or 1%. –
which means 0.05 indicates a 5% risk to rejecting a true
null hypothesis out of 100%. It denoted by α
4. Calculate the value of the test statistics using appropriate
formula.

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 Procedure for testing hypothesis
5. Obtain the table value of the test statistics corresponding to
the level of significance and the degree of freedom.
Degree of freedom: Z-test ∞, T-test (n-1)
6. Make decision about accepting or rejecting the null
hypothesis.
Conditions:
1. Computed value is less than table value – accept
2. Computed value is greater than table value - reject

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 Type I and Type II errors
When a statistical hypothesis is tested there are four possibilities:
1. The hypothesis is true and our test accepts it (Correct
decision)
2. The hypothesis is false and our test rejects it (Correct
decision)
3. The hypothesis is true but our test rejects it (Type 1 error)
4. The hypothesis is false but our test accepts it (Type 2 error)
Type I error – Reject null hypothesis when it is true
Type II error – Accept null hypothesis when it is false

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 TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS
In a statistical hypothesis testing experiment, a Type I error is
committed by rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true.
The probability of committing a Type I error is denoted by α
Where α = Prob. Type I error
= Prob. (Rejecting H0 / Ha is true)
Type II error is committed by not rejecting the null hypothesis
when it false.
The probability of committing a Type II error is denoted by β

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TYPE I, TYPE II ERRORS

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 Critical Region
A critical region, also known as the rejection region, is a set of
values for the test statistic for which the null hypothesis is
rejected.
i.e. if the observed test statistic is in the critical region then we
reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis.
Critical Region corresponds to a level of significance α and the
acceptance region corresponds to the region, 1-α
Eg: level of significance is 5% or 0.05 (rejection region)
Acceptance region = 1-0.05 = 0.95

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Critical Region

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 One Tailed and Two Tailed test
A two-tailed test, in statistics, is a method in which the critical
area of a distribution (significance level) is two-sided.

Level of
significance
5% 0.05

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 One Tailed and Two Tailed test
One-tailed hypothesis test is known as directional or one-sided
test in which the critical area (level of significance) is
distributed to one tail of the distribution.
Left-tailed and
right-tailed test

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 Z-Test
Uses of Z-Test:
1. To test the given population mean when the sample is large
or when the population SD is known.
2. To test the equality of two sample means when the samples
are large or when the population SD is known.
3. To test the population proportion
4. To test the equality of correlation coefficients.

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 T-Test
Uses of T-Test:
1. To test the population mean when the sample is small and
the population SD is unknown.
2. To test equality of two sample means when the samples are
small and the population SD is unknown.
3. To test the significance of correlation coefficients.

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 Testing the Population mean
Set the hypothesis – there is no significance between sample
mean and population mean. (Population Mean is true)
μ = (Sample Mean = Population Mean)
Decide Test criteria :-
If sample is large
If sample is small but population SD is known Z-Test

If Sample is small and populations SD is unknown T-test

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Testing the Population mean

= Sample Mean
= Population Mean

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 Testing the Population mean

Standard Error is computed by one of the formula:

1. [when population SD is known and sample is small or
large.
2. [when SD is unknown and sample is large] S- Sample SD
3. [when population SD is not known and sample is small]

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 Testing the Population mean

4. For Z-test degree of freedom is ∞, T-test n-1

5. Find table value of test statistics, for the degree of freedom
and level of significance.
6. Take decision on either accept or reject the hypothesis.

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 Testing Significance of difference between 2 population mean
Procedure:
1. H0:=
H1:
2. Test Statistics - Sample means
3. SE can be obtained by one of the following formula:
a) When 2 samples are drawn from population with same
standard deviation ()
SE =

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 Testing Significance of difference between 2 population mean
b) When two samples are drawn from population with
different standard deviation ( and )
SE = +
c) When population SD are not known and sample are large,
assuming are different
SE = + S = Sample Standard Deviation
d) When population SD are not known and sample are small,
assuming is same for both population
SE =

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 Testing Significance of difference between 2 population mean
4. Degree of freedom
Z test – ∞
T test -
5. Obtain the table value
6. Conclusion
Calculated value is less than table value – accept
Calculated value is greater than table value - reject

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