GEODESY

It is an earth science, that determines by

observations and measurements the exact
position of points on the earth’s surface, the
shape & size of the earth, and the variations of
terrestrial gravity.

SATELLITE GEODESY  NUST Institute of Civil Engineering

The common aims of Geodesy are;

a. Establishment and maintenance of national

and global three dimensional geodetic control
stations network.

b. Measurement and representation of geo-

dynamic phenomenon (polar motion, earth
tides etc.)

c. Determination of gravity field of the earth.

 THE FIGURE OF THE EARTH
When speaking of size and shape of the earth and
position on it, there are three surfaces to be
considered;
a.Terrain
b.Geoid
c.Ellipsoid

SATELLITE GEODESY  NUST Institute of Civil Engineering

Terrain
The land surface, its irregular shape consisting of
mountains, valleys, inland hydrography, plains and
general Characteristics (Topography)

•The shape of the earth’s surface is irregular, with

mountain ranges and ocean trenches giving a total
range in height and depth of the order of 20,000 meters.
 Geoid
a.Large parts of the earth are covered by water and
the most convenient near-regular surface to use as a
basis for the examination of the shape of the earth is
that of MEAN SEA LEVEL. This surface, together with
its imaginary extension under the land surface, is
known as the Geoid.
b. The force of gravity always acts in a
direction perpendicular to the geoids surface
but varies systematically with latitude and
locally due to density variations in the earths
crust.

SATELLITE GEODESY  NUST Institute of Civil Engineering

c. The gravity data is an important
input to determine the shape of
geoid. Gravity survey is carried
out to determine the values of
force of gravity at different points
on the surface of earth.
The instrument used for this
purpose is called “Gravity Meter”.
Geoid
Definition
The figure of the earth imagined
as a mean sea-level surface of
the earth extending continuously
beneath the terrain. For those
areas of terrain below mean
sea-level, the geoidal surface
is imagined to be above the terrain
surface.
 Disadvantages of GEOID as a Model of Earth
As a model of earth the geoid has the following
disadvantages;

a. It cannot be defined exactly in mathematical terms.

b.It is subject to small secular changes in shapes.

c.Over the land areas it has no physical reality, except
as a reference surface for heights

SATELLITE GEODESY  NUST Institute of Civil Engineering

 Ellipsoid
a. When the computations
of positions, distances and
directions are carried out b
on earths surface, we need
to have some mathematical a
reference frame.
b. Since the earth is flattened slightly at the
poles and bulges somewhat at the equator, the
geometrical figure used in geodesy that fits the shape
of earth well, is an ellipsoid.
c. The ellipsoid is a surface of revolution , formed by
the rotation of an ellipse about its minor axis.
SATELLITE GEODESY  NUST Institute of Civil Engineering
Ellipsoid
Definition
An ellipsoid is a three-dimensional mathematical
figure generated by rotating an ellipse about its
minor axis; the parameters of ellipse thus determine
the surface of ellipsoid.
Ellipsoid Contd..
The following parameters define an ellipsoid :-
• Semi-Major Axis (a)

• Semi-Minor Axis (b)

• Flattening (f) = (a - b)/a

 WHICH ELLIPSOID TO CHOOSE ?
a. A nation or group of nations
have chosen different reference
ellipsoids that fit their
particular areas of Geoid well.
b. some of the important
ellipsoids are given below;
(1) Clarks 1866, (North and Central America)
(2) Modified Clarke 1880, (Africa)
(3) Everest 1830, (India, Pakistan, South Asia,
Indonesia)
SATELLITE GEODESY  NUST Institute of Civil Engineering
d. Besel 1841, (China, Korea, Japan)
e. Airy 1930, (UK)
f. Krasovsky 1940, (USSR)
(3) Ellipsoid of one particular area doesn’t
ideally fit another area, (for instance, Clarke
1866 doesn’t ideally fit in Europe)
(4) However for Global Navigation we need to
have one ellipsoid common for Global use by
all nations. For this purpose John Fillmore
Hayford presented the idea of an
International ellipsoid in 1924.
 INTERNATIONAL ELLIPSOID
N
 The present model of Topography

international ellipsoid N. America Europe

being used Globally is
World Geodetic System
1984,Which is commonly
known as WGS84.It has S. America Africa

the following
parameters:-
Semi Major Axis = 6,378,137.000 m
Flattening = 298.2572236
 CHARACTERISTICS OF WGS84 ELLIPSOID
 Origin coincides with Earth’s center of mass
 X and Y axes are perpendicular to each other in the equatorial plane
 Z axis is at right angle to the X,Y plane and coincides with the
Earth’s rotational axis

z
CHARACTERISTICS OF WGS84 ELLIPSOID (Contd…)
 The prime orientation (X) is Greenwich Meridian.
 Positions and coordinate differences are obtained in the WGS 84
coordinate system
 Latitude, Longitude and Ellipsoid Height

 Geocentric X,Y,Z coordinates

z
P
THOSE WHO DESIGNED
ELLIPSOIDS
CLARKE
1866
Alexander Ross
Clarke (1828–1914)

• Alexander Ross Clarke (1828–1914) was a

British geodesist, primarily remembered for
his work defining different reference
ellipsoids approximating the shape of the
geoid.
• In 1866 he described a new reference ellipsoid,
known as Clarke 1866 and still used today,
particularly in English-language countries and
areas.
• In his 1880 book Geodesy he described a different
ellipsoid, known as Clarke 1880, which is used
mainly in Africa and also used in France.
EVEREST 1830
Founded by Colonel Sir George
Everest who was a surveyor,
geographer and Surveyor-
General of India from 1830 to
1843. It was mainly used in the
sub-continent of India.
 BESSEL
1841
• The Bessel ellipsoid was derived in 1841 by
Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel based on several
meridian arcs and other data of continental
geodetic networks of Europe, Russia and the
British Survey of India.
• The Bessel ellipsoid fits especially well to the
geoid curvature of Europe and Eurasia.
• It is currently used by several countries
for their national geodetic surveys.
AIRY 1830
Founded by Sir George
Biddell Airy who was an
English mathematician and
astronomer. This ellipsoid is
mainly used in Britain
 INTERNATIONAL
1924
• John Fillmore Hayford was an
eminent United States geodesist.
His work involved the study of
isostasy and the construction of a
reference ellipsoid for
approximating the figure of the
Earth.
• The Hayford ellipsoid is a geodetic
reference ellipsoid which was
introduced in 1910.
• The Hayford ellipsoid was also referred to as
the International ellipsoid 1924 after it had
been adopted by the International Union of
Geodesy and Geophysics IUGG in 1924, and
was recommended for use all over the world.
• The Hayford ellipsoid also included
measurements from North America, as well
as other continents (to a lesser extent).
KRASOVSKY 1940
• Founded by Feodosy Nikolaevich Krasovsky
who was a Russian and later Soviet
astronomer and geodesist.
• Used as a reference ellipsoid in the USSR and
other countries until the 1990s.
HEIGHTING
 Heighting contd…
 Heights determined using GPS are referenced
to the WGS 84 ellipsoid
Ellipsoid heights are heights
P Topography
above the ellipsoid h

h = Ellipsoidal height
(from GPS) Ellipsoid
 Heighting contd…
 The Geoid is the equipotential surface (equal
gravity) that best equates to Mean Sea Level
 The geoid undulates due to the effects of
 Topology, geology etc
 Orthometric heights are
referenced to a datum
which is typically M.S.L
 M.S.L approximates
the Geoid
 Heighting contd…
 The height difference between the ellipsoid
and the geoid is called geoidal undulation
 To obtain orthometric heights, Topography
P
the geoidal undulation must h
H
be accounted for Geoid
N

N = Geoidal Separation Ellipsoid

Heighting contd…
Geoidalseparation can be computed using
GEOID99 (USA) or HT01_01 (Canada)
The geoidal undulation for the contiguous
United States is negative
P Topography
h = Ellipsoidal height
h
H
H = Height above geoid
(~Orthometric Height) Geoid
N
N = Geoidal
separation

h=H+N Ellipsoid