Color Theory

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Color & Colorimetry

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Color & Colorimetry

COLOR AND COLORIMETRY ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS

• Sample Preparation
• The Effect of the Illuminant
• The Effect of the Object LIGHTING AND STANDARD ILLUMINANTS
• The Observer
• Color Communication • Visual Color Assessments

• Terminology and Color Description • Visual Assessment - Method

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Color and Colorimetry

Many of the specifications given in this section concern


the quality of the color of a sample. Color is a
perception which we enjoy as humans and it is a very
important aspect of the product quality.  

Results of surveys among consumers indicate that the


color of the item considered for purchase forms the first
impression of quality.  Although our color perception is
subjective, a basic understanding of the principles of
color will help us communicate and evaluate color in
more objective ways.

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Color and Colorimetry
So, what is color, and how can it be described numerically? The following series of
diagrams and text provide a short summary of the fundamentals of color and
colorimetric descriptions. First, we must understand that:
Color is a perception.
Color perception happens in the brain.
Color is a perception by an observer of light that has been modified by an object.

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Color and Colorimetry
Illuminant Object Observer
Many factors influence our perceptions of color,
but without all three of these there is no
perception. We can describe light, objects and
observers numerically:

Source of light - Illuminant = Color Perception


Object – Reflectance or Transmittance
Eye-brain – Standard Observer Functions

= Color Description

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The Effect Of The Illuminant
Newton stated that "in the absence of light, there is no color". All color originates in the spectral characteristics of
the light which is incident upon an object.
We "see" the result of this interaction between the incident light and the object. As the color of the light source
changes, the color of the sample will be perceived differently.
 

The term “illuminant” refers to a set of numbers that describe the spectral characteristics of a particular light,
while the term “light source” refers to a physical device that produces light, such as a fluorescent tube.
The effect of different light sources on fabric examples can be demonstrated in the figure below. As the color of
the light source changes from the bluish cast of daylight to the reddish yellow cast of U3500, the perceived color
of the sample changes.

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The Effect Of The Illuminant
Because the color of a sample will change
as the light source changes, it is critical
that the correct light sources are used for
color evaluation. Please refer to your
brand Color SOP guidelines to select the
appropriate primary, secondary and
tertiary illuminants.

Samples viewed in D65 Daylight Samples viewed in U3500

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The Effect Of The Object
The object is of course the textile sample which is being
evaluated. When light from a source strikes an object several
possible light-object interactions may occur:
 
 Certain portions of the incident light may be reflected from the
surface of the object
 
 Light may be absorbed by the texture or by the dyes and
pigments that are in the sample
 
 Light may be scattered by the substrate or by particles or other
materials present in the substrate
 
 Light may be transmitted through the sample

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The Effect Of The Object
These light-object interactions determine the
nature of the color we observe for the object
under that specific light source and are
measured using a spectrophotometer. 

The spectrophotometer measures the amount of


light energy that is reflected from the surface of
the object and reports the results in units of
percent reflectance.  The “reflectance curve” can
be described as the “fingerprint” of a color and is
used for all colorimetric calculations.

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The Effect Of The Object
The example reflectance curve below is for a pink color, with the percentage of light reflected indicated
in the range of 0-100% on the y-axis to the left. Light reflectance is then measured in intervals in the
range from approximately 360-700 nanometers (nm) on the x-axis at the bottom. This wavelength
range represents the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum where our eyes respond to the energy
and experience the sensation of color.

The shape of the reflectance curve


changes depending upon the color
being measured, with greater
amounts of energy reflected at
wavelengths corresponding to the
color of the sample as indicated in
the hue bar located below the
graph.

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The Observer
The observer is the person who is receiving visual
stimuli from the light-object interaction. This act of
"seeing" is a combination of the mechanics of optics
(light, lens, focus) and the psycho-physical response of
the brain. The brain interprets the visual stimuli and it
is this interpretation that gives the sensation of color.

In color science, this aspect of human perception of


color has been empirically determined and the
corresponding data for "normal color vision" has been
named the “Standard Observer".
 

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The Observer
Two sets of data are available to describe the response of the standard observer:
1) the 1931 2-degree Standard Observer, and 2) the 1964 10-degree Standard Observer.
Most brands specify the CIE 1964 10-degree standard observer.
 
It is also important to note that since variations in color vision exist, all color decision-makers should
have their color vision regularly tested using a comprehensive hue test.

The field of vision of 10°


standard observer is about
27 times as large as the 2°
standard observer

Color-matching functions x,y,z of the


10° standard observer (CIE 1964)

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Color Communication
Without standardized color communication, describing the
visual differences between two fabric samples can be very
frustrating. Therefore, standard color terminology is essential
to promote clear and precise color communication between
the brand and our suppliers.
 
As discussed in the previous section, color may be described
in terms of an internationally adopted system of color scales.
 
These are the dimensions of Lightness (L*), Chroma (C*),
and Hue (h*) as defined by the International Commission
on Illumination (CIE). In addition, the opponent scales of
Red-Green (a*), and Yellow-Blue (b*) are also used.
 
These dimensions in color space can be described as follows.

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Terminology and Color Descriptions
To ensure effective color communication in worldwide sourcing, the brand has adopted the color
terminology of the CIE. In describing color differences between the STANDARD and the SUBMITTED
SAMPLE, the brand uses the CIEL*C*h* system for color approvals and color descriptions.
 
Lightness (L*) represents the dimension of lightness and darkness for a color. Dark colors have low values
of L*, whereas a perfect white sample would have an L* value of 100. Lightness L* is sometimes referred
to as Value.  

L* represents the degree of Lightness or Darkness

Color Difference in Lightness (L*)


DARKER LIGHTER

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Terminology and Color Descriptions
Another dimension of color is Chroma represented by the C* value. Chroma is defined as the degree of
color purity, saturation, or brilliance for a given color. Samples which have very low chroma would be
either white, grey, or black shades. These colors are sometimes called achromatic, for lack of Chroma.
Bright colors have very high values for chroma.
 

C* Chroma represents the degree of Brightness or Saturation

Color Difference in Chroma (C*)


WEAKER STRONGER

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Terminology and Color Descriptions
The third dimension of color is the Hue represented by the h* value. The hue of a color is associated with
the dimension of shade, or cast of a color such as red, green, blue, yellow, violet, etc.
 

h* or Hue represents the shade or hue of a color

Color Difference in Hue (h*)


Red Red/Yellow Yellow Yellow/Green Green Blue/Green Blue Purple/Blue Purple Red/Purple

As described earlier, there are other useful CIE descriptors such as a* (red/green), and b* (yellow/blue)
which are useful for communication of color differences.
 

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Terminology and Color Descriptions
Most brands color evaluations will be performed using the CIEL*C*h* system for communication
with suppliers. Likewise, color differences are given as:
 
dL* = Difference in lightness/darkness between standard and sample
Color difference values are generated      + dL*  = Lighter
automatically in the Datacolor Tools      - dL*   = Darker
software, and verbal definitions of the dC* = Difference in brightness/ dullness 
values, e.g., “Too dark”, “Too blue”,      + dC*  = Brighter
      - dC*  = Duller
etc, are also displayed. These values
will serve to supplement the visual dH* = Difference in hue or shade 
     + dH*  = Varies
color differences communicated by the       - dH*   = Varies
colorist.
da* = Difference in redness / greenness
  + da*. = More Red
- da* = More Green

db* = Difference in yellowness / blueness


+ db* = More Blue
- db* = More Yellow

dE* CIEL*a*b* = Color Difference

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Terminology and Color Descriptions
CMC Formula
 
b+
The CMC (l:c) formula is a modification of the
corresponding CIELAB color-difference formula.
 
Even when the use of the CIE 1976 L*a*b* equation
provides industry with a ‘standard’ means of
calculating and communicating color differences, it is
recognized that CIELAB color difference values (∆E*)
correlate poorly with visual assessments. a- a+

Figure shows the variation on visual acceptability


across the CIE L*a*b* space
 
b-

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Terminology and Color Descriptions
The lack of correlation is caused by the non-uniformity
of the CIELAB space. The CMC formula is based on
CIE lightness (DL*), chroma (DC*), and hue (DH*)
differences
  SH
DEcmc =√ ((DL*/lSL)2 + (DC*/cSC)2 + (DH*/SH)2 SC SL

The CMC (l:c) provides a unit of measurement for the


acceptance volume of a standard color. This volume takes
the shape of an ellipsoid whose semi-axes are lSl, cSc
and Sh in the directions of lightness, chroma and hue,
respectively in CIELAB color space

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Environmental Conditions
SAMPLE PREPARATION
Samples for visual and instrumental assessments must be stable to
laboratory conditions prior to making color judgments. 

Standards and submissions should be conditioned to 65%


relative humidity and 70° F/ 21° C in the room/area used to assess
color or in the conditioning cabinet. 

Always use the recommendations from the conditioning cabinet


manufacturer and make sure the color evaluation is performed 
within 5 minutes after removing the
samples from  the conditioning cabinet to minimize deviation
from standard atmospheric conditions. 

Samples that have not been allowed to condition will show


sensitivity to moisture and temperature.  

*Please refer to your brand Color SOP for guidelines of sample conditioning

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Lighting and Standard Illuminants
VISUAL COLOR ASSESSMENTS
Visual assessments are performed by using a standardized
lighting cabinet
  
• It is required that only lamps supplied by the original
manufacturer of the light booth be used. 

• Lamps should be replaced on a timely basis according to


the user’s manual, or every 4000 hours.  

• Do NOT turn the UV light. This light source is only used to


detect the presence of fluorescent colorants and optical
brightening agents (OBA).  

• The light cabinet should be serviced/calibrated as


recommended by the manufacturer and a service log kept
for future inspection.

*Please refer to the brand Color SOP requirements for the primary, secondary and tertiary light sources to be used for all
visual and instrumental color evaluations

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Lighting and Standard Illuminants
VISUAL COLOR ASSESSMENT
In the light cabinet, the following procedure must be followed: Correct

• The light booth must be placed away from windows, direct


overhead or surrounding light. A grey/black curtain which
surrounds the light booth may be necessary to block
ambient lighting

• Light booths must be empty and free of other objects (i.e.,


posted papers, photos or charts, plants, papers, pencils,
pens, etc.) when viewing a color standard and
submission. Color reflections from these objects can alter
the perception of the viewing. 

• Fold the color submission and the color reference two


times (4 layers) or until opaque

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Lighting and Standard Illuminants
VISUAL COLOR ASSESSMENT (continued)
In the light cabinet, the following procedure must be followed: Incorrect

• Avoid factors that alter color perception such as tinted


eyeglass lenses, bright nail polish, bright clothing and
extreme size differences between a standard and a color
submission.

• Review the color submission and color reference without


any paper backing. They should only be backed with
the interior of the light booth.

• Ideally, a 45-degree “Grey Scale Viewing Stand” should


be used to view the standard and submission.

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Lighting and Standard Illuminants
Samples for submission must also meet the
numerical tolerances specified by the brand Color
SOP on both primary and secondary
illuminants/observers and should not exhibit
significant metamerism or color inconstancy in
all other illuminants.

The definition of metamerism is that “a pair of


samples match under one set of conditions but fail
to match under another set of conditions."

For example, if a standard and batch match in F02


but the submit flares red in a secondary light source
then the match is termed metameric (see example
below in which the shirt and pants do not flare in
the same direction in all light sources).

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Lighting and Standard Illuminants
Metamerism typically occurs in textile materials when the sample and standard do not contain the same dyes or
require different dye classes, or the dyes that are used flare differently in various light sources.   The only solution is
to reformulate the dye recipe using dyestuffs that have flare characteristics similar to those in the standard.  
Metamerism may be evaluated by examining the DE* and DH* values under the relevant illuminants - in extreme
cases the DE* value may be more than ten units higher under the secondary illuminant.

Please note that for a submission to be acceptable, it must


be visually acceptable and within the DEcmc tolerance for all
specified illuminants.

We fully expect visual and instrumental assessments to


be in close agreement, however in some “borderline”
cases, the brand will determine acceptability by visual
assessment.

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Lighting and Standard Illuminants
What is color inconstancy?
 
Color inconstancy is the change in color of a single sample under different light sources with different color
temperatures and hence different chromaticity.
  

 A garment, for example, illuminated by fluorescent


tubes when selected in a shop, may appear a different
color when seen in daylight, and different again when
seen in tungsten light. If the color inconstancy of an
article is significant, customer complaint may result.
Hence there is a desire in all the coloration industries
to predict the change during the design phase of the
article and monitor it during production.  

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Lighting and Standard Illuminants
 The magnitude of color inconstancy can be defined by DEcmc of the sample between two lights.
 
The ISO standard for shade (in)constancy is called CMCCON and it refers to the DEcmc for a sample between D65
and a second light source. Given the CIE L*a*b* values for a sample in D65 and in a second light source it is possible
to calculate the CMCCON for a shade.
 
As shown below, color can change significantly in going from store light to daylight. This change can be unexpected
and could leave the consumer less than satisfied with their purchasing decision. Therefore, color inconstancy is a
problem that needs a more complete analysis.
 

Same sample viewed on 3 different lights (Ultralume 3500, D65, F11)

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