Presentation on

Methods of Data Collection

Dr. Madhu Thakur

Assistant Professor

Department of Management Studies

Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology,

Bhopal 1
Data Collection: A Definition

Data collection is the process of gathering, measuring, and analyzing

accurate data from a variety of relevant sources to find answers to
research problems, answer questions, evaluate outcomes, and forecast
trends and probabilities.

Accurate data collection is necessary to make informed business

decisions, ensure quality assurance, and keep research integrity.

During data collection, the researchers must identify the data types, the
sources of data, and what methods are being used, there are many
different data collection methods.
Before an analyst begins collecting data, they must answer
three questions first:

• What’s the goal or purpose of this research?

• What kinds of data are they planning on gathering?
• What methods and procedures will be used to collect, store, and
process the information?

Additionally, we can break up data into qualitative and quantitative

types.
Qualitative data covers descriptions such as color, size, quality, and
appearance.
Quantitative data, unsurprisingly, deals with numbers, such as statistics,
poll numbers, percentages, etc.
Why Do We Need Data Collection?

Before a judge makes a ruling in a court case or a general creates a plan

of attack, they must have as many relevant facts as possible. The best
courses of action come from informed decisions, and information and
data are synonymous.

The concept of data collection isn’t a new one, as we’ll see later, but the
world has changed. There is far more data available today, and it exists
in forms that were unheard of a century ago. The data collection process
has had to change and grow with the times, keeping pace with
technology.

Whether you’re in the world of academia, trying to conduct research, or

part of the commercial sector, thinking of how to promote a new
product, you need data collection to help you make better choices.
Why is Data Collection important
A couple of reasons that highlight the importance of data collection are-
• The trustworthiness of The Research – A critical purpose behind data
collection via quantitative or qualitative techniques is to guarantee
that the research question’s honesty is kept up without a doubt.
• Diminish the probability of blunders or errors – The right utilization
of suitable data collection strategies decreases the probability of
blunders during different research processes.
• Effective and accurate decision making – To limit the danger of
blunders or errors in decision making, it is significant that precise
data is gathered, so the specialists do not settle on clueless choices.
• Save Cost and Time – Data collection plays a significant role in saving
time and money that can otherwise be squandered without more
profound comprehension of the point or topic.
• Empowers a new idea or change – To demonstrate the requirement
for an adjustment or new change, it is critical to collect data and
information as proof to help these cases.
 While deciding about the method of data collection to be used for
the study, the researcher should keep in mind two types of data viz.,
primary and secondary.

The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first
time, and thus happen to be original in character.

The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already
been collected by someone else and which have already been passed
through the statistical process.

The researcher would have to decide which sort of data he would be

using (thus collecting) for his study and accordingly he will have to select
one or the other method of data collection. The methods of collecting
primary and secondary data differ since primary data are to be originally
collected, while in case of secondary data the nature of data collection
work is merely that of compilation.
COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA
There are several methods of collecting primary data, particularly in
surveys and descriptive researches. Important ones are:
(i) observation method,
(ii) interview method,
(iii) through questionnaires,
(iv) through schedules, and
(v) other methods which include

(a) warranty cards;

(b) distributor audits;
(c) pantry audits;
(d) consumer panels;
(e) using mechanical devices;
(f) through projective
techniques;
(g) depth interviews, and
(h) content analysis.
Observation Method

The observation method involves human or mechanical observation of

what people actually do or what events take place during a buying or
consumption situation. “Information is collected by observing process at
work. ”The following are a few situations:-

1. Service Stations-Pose as a customer, go to a service station and

observe.
2. To evaluate the effectiveness of display of Dunlop Pillow Cushions-In
a departmental store, observer notes:- a) How many pass by; b) How
many stopped to look at the display; c) How many decide to buy.
3. Super Market-Which is the best location in the shelf? Hidden
cameras are used.
4. To determine typical sales arrangement and find out sales
enthusiasm shown by various salesmen-Normally this is done by an
investigator using a concealed tape-recorder.
We often talk about participant and non-participant types of
observation in the context of studies. This distinction depends upon the
observer’s sharing or not sharing the life of the group he is observing. If
the observer observes by making himself, more or less, a member of the
group he is observing so that he can experience what the members of
the group experience, the observation is called as the participant
observation.

But when the observer observes as a detached emissary without any

attempt on his part to experience through participation what others
feel, the observation of this type is often termed as non-participant
observation.

(When the observer is observing in such a manner that his presence

may be unknown to the people he is observing, such an observation is
described as disguised observation.)
There are several merits of the participant type of
observation:

(i) The researcher is enabled to record the natural behaviour of the

group.

(ii) The researcher can even gather information which could not easily
be obtained if he observes in a disinterested fashion.

(iii) The researcher can even verify the truth of statements made by
informants in the context of a questionnaire or a schedule.

But there are also certain demerits of this type of observation viz., the
observer may lose the objectivity to the extent he participates
emotionally; the problem of observation-control is not solved; and it
may narrow-down the researcher’s range of experience.
Advantages of Observation Method

1. If the researcher observes and record events, it is not necessary to

rely on the willingness and ability of respondents to report
accurately.

2. The biasing effect of interviewers is either eliminated or reduced.

Data collected by observation are, thus, more objective and
generally more accurate.
Disadvantages of Observation Method

1. The most limiting factor in the use of observation method is the

inability to observe such things such as attitudes, motivations,
customers/consumers state of mind, their buying motives and their
images.
2. It also takes time for the investigator to wait for a particular action to
take place.
3. Personal and intimate activities, such as watching television late at
night, are more easily discussed with questionnaires than they are
observed.
4. Cost is the final disadvantage of observation method. Under most
circumstances, observational data are more expensive to obtain
than other survey data. The observer has to wait doing nothing,
between events to be observed. The unproductive time is an
increased cost.
If the observation takes place in the natural setting, it may be termed as
uncontrolled observation, but when observation takes place according
to definite pre-arranged plans, involving experimental procedure, the
same is then termed controlled observation. In non-controlled
observation, no attempt is made to use precision instruments.
The major aim of this type of observation is to get a spontaneous
picture of life and persons. It has a tendency to supply naturalness and
completeness of behaviour, allowing sufficient time for observing
it. But in controlled observation, we use mechanical (or precision)
instruments as aids to accuracy and standardisation. Such observation
has a tendency to supply formalised data upon which generalisations
can be built with some degree of assurance. The main pitfall of non-
controlled observation is that of subjective interpretation. There is also
the danger of having the feeling that we know more about the observed
phenomena than we actually do. Generally, controlled observation
takes place in various experiments that are carried out in a laboratory or
under controlled conditions, whereas uncontrolled observation is
resorted to in case of exploratory researches.
Interview Method

The main purpose of interview as a tool of data collection, is to gather

data extensively and intensively. As Pauline.V Young pointed out that the
objectives of the interview may be exchange of ideas and experiences,
eliciting of information pertaining to a very wide range of data in which
the interviewee may wish to rehearse his past, define his present and
canvass his future possibilities. Thus, in brief, the objectives of
interviewee are two fold:

1. To exchange ideas and experience and

2. To elicit information.
The importance of interview may be known through these
points,

1. It is the method best suited for the assessment of personal qualities.

2. It has definite values for diagnosis of emotional problems and for

therapeutic treatments.

3. It is one of the major bases upon which counseling procedures are

carried out.

4. It provides information to supplement other methods of collecting

data.

5. It may be used, in addition to observation, to verify information

obtained through correspondence methods.
Types of Interviews used in Research

There are different types of interviews used in the research data

collection. An interview is either structured or unstructured, depending
upon whether a formal questionnaire has bean formulated and the
questions asked in a prearranged order or not. An interview is also
either direct or indirect as a result of whether the purposes of the
questions asked are plainly stated or intentionally disguised. Cross-
classifying these two characteristics provides four different types of
interviews. That is, an interview may be:
(1) structured and direct,
(2) unstructured and direct,
(3) structured and indirect, or
(4) unstructured and indirect.

Types (1) and (2) are basically objective types; (3) and (4) are subjective
types.
Structured-Direct Interview: The usual type of interview conducted
during a consumer survey to obtain descriptive information is one using
a formal questionnaire consisting of non-disguised questions, a
questionnaire designed to “get the facts”. If the marketing search
manager of a television set manufacturer wants to find out how many
and what kinds of people prefer various styles of television cabinets, for
example, he may have a set of questions drawn up that asks for these
facts directly. Assuming that personal interviewing is being used, each
interviewer will be instructed to ask the questions in the order given on
the questionnaire and to ask only those questions. The resulting
interviews will be structured-direct in nature.

Structured-indirect interview: In the case of structured indirect

interview the questions are pre-decided and arranged in a structured
way. However the purpose of the study is not revealed.
Unstructured-Direct Interview: In the unstructured-direct method
of interviewing, the interviewer is given only general instructions on the
type of information desired. He is left to ask the necessary direct
questions to obtain this information, using the warding and the order
that seems most appropriate in the context of each interview.
Unstructured-direct interviews are often used in exploratory studies.
Many research projects that use a formal questionnaire for the final
interviews go through an exploratory phase in which respondents are
contacted and unstructured interviews are held. These interviews are
useful in obtaining a clearer understanding of the problem and
determining what areas should be investigated.

Unstructured-indirect interview: In the case of unstructured

indirect interview the questions aren’t pre-decided and neither the
purpose of the study made known explicitly.
There are other types of interviews, like focus-group
interview, depth interview, etc.

1. Focus-Group Interviews: Perhaps the best-known and most

widely used type of indirect interview is the one conducted with a focus
group. A focus-group interview is one in which a group of people jointly
participate in an unstructured-indirect interview. The group, usually
consisting of 8 to 12 people, is generally selected purposively to include
persons who have a common background or similar buying or use
experience that relates to the problem to be researched. The
interviewer, moderator, as he or she is more often called, attempts to
focus the discussion on the problem areas in a relaxed, nondirected
manner. The objective is to foster involvement and interaction among
the group members during the interview will lead to spontaneous
discussion and the disclosure of attitudes, opinions, information on
present or prospective buying and use behavior.
2. Focused Interviews: This is a semi-structured interview where the
investigator attempts to focus the discussion on the actual effects of a
given experience to which the respondents have been exposed. It takes
place with the respondents known to have involved in a particular
experience, e.g, seeing a particular film, viewing a particular program on
TV., involved in a train/bus accident, etc. The situation is analyzed prior
to the interview. An interview guide specifying topics relating to the
research hypothesis used. The interview is focused on the subjective
experiences of the respondent, i.e., his attitudes and emotional
responses regarding the situation under study. The focused interview
permits the interviewer to obtain details of personal reactions, specific
emotions and the like. The merits of using this type of interview is that,
it’s free from the inflexibility of formal methods, yet gives the interview
a set form and insured adequate coverage of all the relevant topics. The
respondent is asked for certain information, yet he has plenty of
opportunity to present his views. The interviewer is also free to choose
the sequence of questions and determine the extent of probing.
3.The Third-Person Technique: The simplest way of obtaining
information through indirect questioning of a respondent is to ask for
the view of a neighbor, an (unnamed) associate, or some other person
whose views on the subject at hand might reasonably be known. This
permits the respondent to project his own views with no feeling of
social pressure to give an “acceptable” answer.

4.The Personal Interview: As the name implies, the personal

interview consists of an interviewer asking questions of one or more
respondents in a face-to-face situation. The interviewer’s role is to get in
touch with the respondent(s), ask the desired questions, and to record
the answers obtained. The recording of the information obtained may
be done either during or after the interview. In either case, it is a part of
the interviewer’s responsibility to ensure that the content of the
answers is clear and unambiguous and that it has been recorded
correctly.
5.The Depth Interview: There is substantial use of the unstructured,
informal interview in marketing research to explore the underlying
predispositions, needs, desires, feelings, and emotions of the consumer
toward products and services. This method of interviewing is referred to
as a “depth interview”. The depth interview in marketing research may
consist of either direct or indirect questions, or some combination of
the two. The skilled interviewer will generally employ both types of
questions, A direct, free answer question such as “What are the major
reasons why you bought your iPhone? Might well be followed up, for
example, with an indirect question such as “Why do you think people
who own smart phones bought them?” By following leads and cues
provided by respondents, phrasing questions to continue the flow and
pattern of the conversation and to maintain the rapport established, the
competent interviewer can explore and probe the underlying
motivations of the respondent.
6. The Telephone Interview: Telephone interviews are sometimes
used in lieu of personal interviews, especially when the information
must be collected quickly and inexpensively and the amount of
information required is limited. The telephone interview is well suited to
such research problems as determining “coincidental” viewing of
television or listening to radio programmes. In this type of study, calls
are placed to a sample of telephone subscribers during the time the
programme is on the air. The person received the call is simply asked
“Are you now watching television?” and, if so, “What programme you
are watching?” Other questions such as “How often do you watch this
programme?” “Who sponsors this programme?” and the like may also
be asked. The result is a rapid and inexpensive measurement of
audience level. Either a structured or an unstructured interview may be
held. Since the amount of information sought is usually well defined,
non-confidential in nature, and limited in amount, virtually all telephone
interviews are structured in nature. This medium does not lend itself
well to indirect interviews and has not been used for this purpose.
The chief merits of such a system are:

1. It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.

2. It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of obtaining
information.
3. It is cheaper than personal interviewing method; here the cost per
response is relatively low.
4. Recall is easy; callbacks are simple and economical.
5. There is a higher rate of response than what we have in mailing
method; the non-response is generally very low.
6. Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to
respondents.
7. Interviewer can explain requirements more easily.
8. At times, access can be gained to respondents who otherwise cannot
be contacted for one reason or the other.
9. No field staff is required.
10. Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible
DEMERITS

1. Little time is given to respondents for considered answers; interview

period is not likely to exceed five minutes in most cases.

2. Surveys are restricted to respondents who have telephone facilities.

3. Extensive geographical coverage may get restricted by cost

considerations.

4. It is not suitable for intensive surveys where comprehensive answers

are required to various questions.

5. Possibility of the bias of the interviewer is relatively more.

6. Questions have to be short and to the point; probes are difficult to

handle.
Despite the variations in interview-techniques, the major advantages
and weaknesses of personal interviews can be enumerated in a
general way. The chief merits of the interview method are as follows:

(i) More information and that too in greater depth can be obtained.
(ii) Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any, of
the respondents; the interview method can be made to yield an almost
perfect sample of the general population.
(iii) There is greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity to
restructure questions is always there, specially in case of unstructured
interviews.
(iv) Observation method can as well be applied to recording verbal
answers to various questions.
(v) Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this
method.
(vi) Samples can be controlled more effectively as there arises no
difficulty of the missing returns; non-response generally remains very
low.
(vii) The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will answer the
questions. This is not possible in mailed questionnaire approach. If so
desired, group discussions may also be held.

(viii) The interviewer may catch the informant off-guard and thus may
secure the most spontaneous reactions than would be the case if mailed
questionnaire is used.

(ix) The language of the interview can be adopted to the ability or

educational level of the person interviewed and as such
misinterpretations concerning questions can be avoided.

(x) The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the

respondent’s personal characteristics and environment which is often of
great value in interpreting results.
But there are also certain weaknesses of the interview method.
Among the important weaknesses, mention may be made of the
following:

(i) It is a very expensive method, specially when large and widely

spread geographical sample is taken.

(ii) There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that
of the respondent; there also remains the headache of supervision and
control of interviewers.

(iii) Certain types of respondents such as important officials or

executives or people in high income groups may not be easily
approachable under this method and to that extent the data may prove
inadequate.

(iv) This method is relatively more-time-consuming, specially when the

sample is large and recalls upon the respondents are necessary.
(v) The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over-stimulate the
respondent, sometimes even to the extent that he may give imaginary
information just to make the interview interesting.

(vi) Under the interview method the organisation required for selecting,
training and supervising the field-staff is more complex with formidable
problems.

(vii) Interviewing at times may also introduce systematic errors.

(viii) Effective interview presupposes proper rapport with respondents

that would facilitate free and frank responses. This is often a very
difficult requirement.
Questionnaire method of data collection

• Questionnaire is as an instrument for research, which consists of a list

of questions, along with the choice of answers, printed or typed in a
sequence on a form used for acquiring specific information from the
respondents.
• In general, questionnaires are delivered to the persons concerned
either by post or mail, requesting them to answer the questions and
return it.
• Informants are expected to read and understand the questions and
reply in the space provided in the questionnaire itself.
• The questionnaire is prepared in such a way that it translates the
required information into a series of questions, that informants can
and will answer.
Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire

• It should consist of a well-written list of questions.

• The questionnaire should deal with an important or significant topic
to create interest among respondents.
• It should seek only that data which cannot be obtained from other
sources.
• It should be as short as possible but should be comprehensive.
• It should be attractive.
• Directions should be clear and complete.
• It should be represented in good psychological order proceeding from
general to more specific responses.
• Double negatives in questions should be avoided.
• Putting two questions in one question also should be avoided. Every
question should seek to obtain only one specific information.
• It should be designed to collect information which can be used
subsequently as data for analysis.
Format of Questions in Questionnaires

• Restricted questions, also called closed-ended, ask the respondent to

make choices — yes or no, check items on a list, or select from
multiple choice answers.
• Restricted questions are easy to tabulate and compile.
• Unrestricted questions are open-ended and allow respondents to
share feelings and opinions that are important to them about the
matter at hand.
• Unrestricted questions are not easy to tabulate and compile, but they
allow respondents to reveal the depth of their emotions.
• If the objective is to compile data from all respondents, then sticking
with restricted questions that are easily quantified is better.
• If degrees of emotions or depth of sentiment is to be studied, then
develop a scale to quantify those feelings.
Uses of Questionnaires
• Questionnaires are a common and inexpensive research tool used by
private companies, government departments, individuals, groups,
NGOs etc to get feedback, research, collect data from consumer,
customers or from general public depending on the need.
• Questionnaires are the most important part of primary surveys.

Advantages of Questionnaire
• One of the greatest benefits of questionnaires lies in their uniformity
— all respondents see exactly the same questions.
• It is an inexpensive method, regardless of the size of the universe.
• Free from the bias of the interviewer, as the respondents answer the
questions in his own words.
• Respondents have enough time to think and answer.
• Due to its large coverage, respondents living in distant areas can also
be reached conveniently.
Limitations of Questionnaire

• The risk of collection of inaccurate and incomplete information is high

in the questionnaire, as it might happen that people may not be able
to understand the question correctly.

• The rate of non-response is high.

COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH SCHEDULES

Under this method a schedule is prepared which is a set of

predetermined questions in a sequence and an enumerator contact the
respondents for filling in the schedules by asking them the questions of
the schedule and putting them in the space provided. It is similar to a
questionnaire method .
Difference between Questionnaire and Schedule:
1. The questionnaire is generally sent through mail to respondents to
answer. The schedule is generally filled out by the enumerator, who can
interpret questions when necessary.

2. Collection of data through questionnaire is relatively cheap and

economical since we have to spend money only in preparing the
questionnaire and in mailing the same to respondents.Here no field staff
required. To collect data through schedules is relatively more expensive
since considerable amount of money has to be spent in appointing
enumerators and in importing training to them. Money is also spent in
preparing schedules.

3. Non-response is usually high in case of questionnaire as many people

do not respond and many return the questionnaire without answering
all questions. As against this, non-response is generally very low in case
of schedules because these are filled by enumerators who are able to
get answers to all questions.
4. In case of questionnaire, it is not always clear as to who replies, but in
case of schedule the identity of respondent is known.

5. The questionnaire method is likely to be very slow since many

respondents do not return the questionnaire in time but in case of
schedules the information is collected in time as they are filled in by
enumerators.

6. Personal contact is generally not possible in case of the questionnaire

method as questionnaires are sent to respondents by post who also in
turn return the same by post. But in case of schedules direct personal
contact is established with respondents.

7. Questionnaire method can be used only when respondents are

literate and cooperative, but in case of schedules the information can be
gathered even when the respondents are illiterate.
8. Wider areas can be covered under the questionnaire method, but in
respect of schedules there is difficulty in sending enumerators over a
relatively wider area.

9. Risk of collecting incomplete and wrong information is relatively more

under the questionnaire method, particularly when people are unable
to understand questions properly. But in case of schedules, the
information collected is generally complete and accurate as
enumerators can remove the difficulties, if any, faced by respondents .

11. In order to attract the attention of respondents, the physical

appearance of questionnaire must be quite attractive, but this may not
be so in case of schedules as they are to be filled in by enumerators and
not by respondents.

12. Along with schedules, observation method can also be used but such
a thing is not possible in Questionnaire method of data collection.