D.A.V.

PUBLIC SCHOOL
SECTOR-37 FARIDABAD

BIOLOGY INVESTIGATORY
PROJECT
2022-2023

TOPIC: IMMUNITY

SUBMITTED BY: VAIBHAVI MAHTO

CLASS: XII-C
ROLL NO.:
SUBMITTED TO: MS.SHIVANI CHADHA
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In the accomplishment of this project successfully, many people have

bestowed on me their blessings and their immense support.

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my subject

teacher Ms. Shivani Chadha as well as our principal Ms. Deepti

Jagota who gave me the golden opportunity to do this wonderful

project on the topic “Immunity” which also helped me in doing a lot

of research and I came to know about so many new things.

Secondly, I would like to thank my parents and my friends who

helped me a lot in finalizing this project within the given time.

Last but not the least I would like to thank our lab assistant and all

the people who had helped me directly or indirectly during the

completion of this project.

 CERTIFICATE
It is to certify that Vaibhavi Mahto,
student of class 12-C has successfully
completed the investigatory project on
the topic “IMMUNITY” under the
guidance of Ms. Shivani Chadha during
the year 2022-2023 in partial fulfillment
of Biology Practical Examination
conducted by CBSE.

Signature of the Examiner Signature of Subject Teacher

 OBJECTIVE
To study the basics of immunity and its
types, along with antigen-antibody
structure and interaction and the basic
structure and the working of human
immune system.
 INDEX
S.NO. CONTENT PAGE NO.

1. Immunity 1
2. Types of Immunity 1-3
3. Antibodies: General 4-6
Structure and their
Types

4. Antibody-Antigen 7-8
Interaction

5. 11
Vaccinisation and 11
Immunization

6. Allergies 12
7. Auto-Immunity 13
8. Immune system of our 14
body
9. Examples of Immuno- 15
deficiency Diseases
along with their brief
description

10. Investigatory Report 16-22

11. Bibliography 23
 Immunity
Every day we are exposed to large number of infectious agents.
However, only a few of these exposures result in disease because our
body is able to defend itself from most of these foreign agents. This
overall ability of the host to fight the disease-causing organisms,
conferred by the immune system is called immunity. Hence, it is also
known as disease resistance.

o The lack of immunity is known as susceptibility.

11

Innate Immunity
It is non-specific, natural type of defence that is present at the time
of birth. It is inherited by the organism from the parents and
protects it from birth. For ex. Humans have innate immunity against
distemper, a fatal disease of dogs. This is accomplished by providing
4 types of barriers to the entry of the foreign agents into our body.
These are —

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(i)Physical barriers: Skin (its outer tough layer Stratum corneum)
is the main barrier which prevents entry of the micro-organisms.
Mucus coating of the epithelium lining the respiratory,
gastrointestinal and urino-genital tracts also help in trapping
microbes entering our body.
(ii)Physiological barriers: Acid in the stomach, saliva in the mouth,
tears from eyes–all prevent microbial growth.
(iii)Cellular barriers: Certain types of leukocytes (WBC) of our
body like polymorpho-nuclear leukocytes (PMNL-neutrophils) and
monocytes and natural killer (type of lymphocytes) in the blood as
well as macrophages in tissues can phagocytose and destroy
microbes.
(iv)Cytokine barriers: Virus-infected cells secrete proteins called
interferons which protect non-infected cells from further viral
infection.

Acquired Immunity

It is pathogen specific. It is also known as adaptive or specific

immunity. It is characterized by memory. When our body
encounters a pathogen for the first time, it produces a response called
primary response which is of low intensity. Subsequent encounter
with the same pathogen brings forth a highly intensified secondary
or anamnestic response. This is credited to the fact that our body
appears to have memory of the first encounter.
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It is of two types: Antibody Mediated and Cell Mediated.
1) Antibody Mediated: The primary and secondary immune
responses are carried out with the help of two special types of
lymphocytes present in our blood, i.e., B-lymphocytes and T-
lymphocytes. The B-lymphocytes produce an army of proteins in
response to pathogens into our blood to fight with them. These
proteins are called antibodies. The T-cells themselves do not secrete
antibodies but help B cells produce them. Because antibodies are
found in the blood, the response is also called as humoral immune
response.

3
Structure of Antibody

Antibodies are immunoglobulins (Ig) which are produced in the

body in response to the antigen or foreign bodies. Thus, all
antibodies are immunoglobulins but all immunoglobulins are
not antibodies.
IgG serves as a model of basic structural unit of all Ig. Each
antibody molecule has four peptide chains, two small called
light chains and two longer called heavy chains. Hence, an
antibody is represented as H2L2. The heavy chain has large no.
of amino acids while the light chain has smaller no. of amino
acids. A disulfide bond joins a light chain with a heavy chain.
Two disulfide bonds also link the two heavy chains
4
This part of the antibody displays considerable
flexibility and is called the hinge region. The stem of
the Y shaped antibody monomer is called the Fc region,
so named because when antibody structure was first
being identified, it was a fragment (F) that crystallized
(C) in cold storage. It lacks the ability to bind to
antigen. Two identical fragments of Y shaped molecule
possess the antigen-binding sites and are thus named
fragment antigen binding (Fab). The antigen binding
sites bind to the

5
Different types of antibodies like IgA, IgM, IgE, IgG are produced in our
body.

6
 ANTIGEN-ANTIBODY
INTERACTION
Epitopes (antigenic determinants) are components of the
antigen. Each antigen carries more than one epitope. Each Y
shaped antibody molecule has atleast two binding sites that can
attach to a specific epitope on an antigen. An antibody can also
bind to identical epitopes on two different cells at the same
time which can cause neighbouring cells to aggregate. The
antibodies can inactivate the invading agent in one of the
following ways:-

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1.Agglutination: It is the clumping of microorganisms or
blood cells, typically due to an antigen antibody reaction.

2.Opsinization (Adherence): For oponizating the antigen,

such as a bacterium is coated with antibodies that
enhance phygocytosis. Making microbes more
susceptible to phygocytosis known as optonization and
antibodies are called opsonins.

3.Precipitation: Phagocytic cells ingest agglutinated

microbes more readily. Also, soluble antigens may come
out of solution and form a more easily phagocytized
precipitate when cross linked by antibodies. This process
is called precipitation.
4.Neutralization: The reaction of antibody with antigen
blocks or neutralizes some bacterial toxins and prevents
attachment of some viruses to body cells. This is called
neutralization.
5.Lysis: Some powerful antibodies attack plasma
membrane of the cell and thereby causing rupture of the
plasma membrane allowing
8
2) Cell Mediated: The second type is called cell-mediated immune response or
cell-mediated immunity (CMI). The T-lymphocytes mediate CMI. Very often,
when some human organs like heart, eye, liver, kidney fail to function
satisfactorily, transplantation is the only remedy to enable the patient to live a
normal life. Then a search begins – to find a suitable donor. Grafts from just any
source – an animal, another primate, or any human beings cannot be made since
the grafts would be rejected sooner or later. Tissue matching, blood group
matching are essential before undertaking any graft/transplant and even after
this the patient has to take immunosuppressant all his/her life. The body is able
to differentiate ‘self’ and ‘non-self’ and the cell-mediated immune response is
responsible for the graft rejection.
o The cells of the immune system are derived from the pluripotent stem
cells in the bone marrow. Pluripotent means a cell that can differentiate
into many different types of tissue cells.
o When antibodies on B cell’s surface bind with antigens, the B cell is
activated and divides, producing clones. These clones give rise to
plasma B cells and memory B cells. This phenomenon is called clonal
selection.

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Active and Passive Immunity
When a host is exposed to antigens, which may be in the form of living or dead microbes
or other proteins, antibodies are produced in the host body. This type of immunity is called
active immunity. Active immunity is slow and takes time to give its full effective response.
Injecting the microbes deliberately during immunization or infectious organisms gaining
access into body during natural infection induce active immunity.

It is further of two types: Natural and Artificial

A person who has recovered from an attack of small pox or measles or mumps develops
natural active immunity.

Artificial active immunity is the resistance induced by vaccines.

When ready-made antibodies are directly given to protect the body against foreign agents,
it is called passive immunity. Ex: The yellowish fluid colostrum secreted by mother during
the initial days of lactation has abundant antibodies (IgA) to protect the infant. The foetus
also receives some antibodies from their mother, through the placenta during pregnancy.

It is also of two types: Natural and Artificial

Natural passive immunity is the resistance passively transferred from the mother to the
foetus through placenta. Ex: IgG antibodies can cross the placental barrier to reach the
foetus.

Artificial passive immunity is the resistance passively transferred to a recipient by

administration of antibodies. This is done by administration of hyperimmune sera of man
or animals which contains antibodies. For ex: anti-tetanus serum (ATS) is prepared in
horses by active immuniastion of horses with tetanus toxoid, bleeding them and separating
the serum. ATS is then used for passive immunization against tetanus.

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Vaccinization and Immunization:-
Vaccine is a preparation/suspension or extract of dead/attenuated (weakened) germs of
a disease which on inoculation (injection) into a healthy person provides
temporary/permanent active/passive immunity by inducing antibodies formation. Thus
antibody provoking agents are called vaccines.

The principle of immunization or vaccination is based on the property of ‘memory’ of the

immune system. In vaccination, a preparation of antigenic proteins of pathogen or
inactivated/weakened pathogen (vaccine) is introduced into the body. The antibodies
produced in the body against these antigens would neutralize the pathogenic agents
during actual infection. The vaccines also generate memory – B and T-cells that
recognize the pathogen quickly on subsequent exposure and overwhelm the invaders
with a massive production of antibodies. If a person is infected with some deadly
microbes to which quick immune response is required as in tetanus, we need to
directly inject the preformed antibodies or antitoxin (a preparation containing
antibodies to the toxin). Even in cases of snakebites, the injection which is given to the
patients, contain preformed antibodies against the snake venom. This type of
immunization is called passive immunization.

Recombinant DNA technology has allowed the production of antigenic polypeptides of

pathogen in bacteria or yeast. Vaccines produced using this approach allows large
scale production and hence greater availability for immunization, e.g., hepatitis B
vaccine produced from yeast.

o Toxoid is a modified bacterial toxin that has been made non toxic but retains
the capacity to stimulate the formation of antitoxin.

Vaccines are classified as follows:-

1. 1st generation vaccines: Produced by conventional methods. Ex: small pox vaccine, Salk’s
polio vaccine

2. 2nd generation vaccines: Prepared with the help of genetic engineering techniques.
Ex: Hepatitis B and Herpes vaccine

3. 3rd generation vaccines: Synthetic vaccines which are under trial. 11

Allergies
The exaggerated response of the immune system to certain antigens
present in the environment is called allergy. The substances to which
such an immune response is produced are called allergens. The antibodies
produced to these are of IgE type. Common examples of allergens are
mites in dust, pollens, mould, spores, feathers, fur, animal dander, etc.
Symptoms of allergic reactions include sneezing, watery eyes, running
nose and difficulty in breathing. Allergy is due to the release of chemicals
like histamine and serotonin from the mast cells. For determining the
cause of allergy, the patient is exposed to or injected with very small
doses of possible allergens, and the reactions studied. The use of drugs
like anti- histamine, adrenalin and steroids quickly reduce the symptoms
of allergy. Somehow, modern- day life style has resulted in lowering of
immunity and more sensitivity to allergens – more and more children in
metro cities of India suffer from allergies and asthma due to sensitivity to
the environment. This could be because of the protected environment
provided early in life.

Some forms of allergy are:-

Hay Fever: Allergy due to pollen of grasses, trees and other plants. It is
characterized by inflammation of the membrane lining the nose.
Asthma: The tissue surrounding the bronchioles of the lungs swell up and
compress the bronchioles. Hence, there is difficulty in breathing. Treatment
is with bronchodilators with or without corticosteroids, usually
administered via aerosol or dry powder inhalers.
Anaphaylaxis (Anaphylactic shock): An allergic reaction involving all the
tissues of the body and occurs in a few minutes after the injection of an
antigen such as penicillin.
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Auto Immunity

If the immune system fails to recognize self from non

self and starts destroying the body’s own proteins, this
leads to some malfunctions which are called
autoimmune diseases and such an immunity is known
as autoimmunity. Sometimes due to genetic and other
unknown reasons, the body attacks self-cells. This
results in damage to the body and is called auto-
immune disease.

Ex: Addison’s disease, Autoimmune haemolytic anaemia,

Rheumatoid arthritis, etc.

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 Immune System in the Body:-
The human immune system consists of lymphoid organs, tissues, cells and soluble
molecules like antibodies. Immune system is unique in the sense that it recognizes
foreign antigens, responds to these and remembers them. The immune system also
plays an important role in allergic reactions, auto-immune diseases and organ
transplantation.
Lymphoid organs: These are the organs where origin and/or maturation and
proliferation of lymphocytes occur. The primary lymphoid organs are bone
marrow and thymus where immature lymphocytes differentiate into antigen-
sensitive lymphocytes. After maturation the lymphocytes migrate to secondary
lymphoid organs like spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, Peyer’s patches of small intestine
and appendix. The secondary lymphoid organs provide the sites for interaction of
lymphocytes with the antigen, which then proliferate to become effector cells.
The bone marrow is the main lymphoid organ where all blood cells including
lymphocytes are produced. The thymus is a lobed organ located near the heart and
beneath the breastbone. The thymus is quite large at the time of birth but keeps
reducing in size with age and by the time puberty is attained it reduces to a very
small size. Both bone-marrow and thymus provide micro-environments for the
development and maturation of T-lymphocytes. The spleen is a large bean-shaped
organ. It mainly contains lymphocytes and phagocytes. It acts as a filter of the
blood by trapping blood-borne microorganisms. Spleen also has a large reservoir
of erythrocytes. The lymph nodes are small solid structures located at different
points along the lymphatic system. Lymph nodes serve to trap the micro-
organisms or other antigens, which happen to get into the lymph and tissue fluid.
Antigens trapped in the lymph nodes are responsible for the activation of
lymphocytes present there and cause the immune response. There is lymphoid
tissue also located within the lining of the major tracts (respiratory, digestive and
urogenital tracts) called mucosal-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT). It
constitutes about 50 per cent of the lymphoid tissue in human body.
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Immunodeficiency Diseases:-
These are conditions where the defense mechanisms of the body are weakened, leading to
repeated microbial infections.

These may be primary or secondary:-

Primary immunodeficiency diseases: They exist from birth. A person may be without B
cells or T cells or both from the birth. Ex: Severe combined immunodeficiency disease
(SCID).

Secondary immunodeficiency diseases: Factors such as malnutrition, infections,

metabolic disorders may lead to defects in specific and non specific immunity. Thus, they
are more common than primary immunodeficiency diseases. Ex: AIDS, Hodgkin’s disease

SCID: The person who is suffering from SCID lacks both B cells and T cells from birth.
It is a serious genetic disease in which the person is highly susceptible to infection.

AIDS: It is a disorder of cell mediated immune system of the body. There is a reduction in
the number of helper T cells which stimulate antibody production by B cells. This results
in the loss of natural defece against viral infection.

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 INVESTIGATORY
REPORT

Figure 1: Global coverage

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21.1 million deaths (UNICEF). As of March 2019, all but
13 countries had eliminated maternal and neonatal tetanus,
a disease with a fatality rate of 70 to 100 percent among
newborns (UNICEF). The percentage of children receiving
the DTP vaccine had been often used as an indicator of
how well countries are providing routine immunization
services. In 2018, global coverage rates for the third dose
of the DTP reached 86%, up from 72% in 2000 and 20% in
1980. However, progress still stalled over the current
decade, where 83 countries have yet to achieve the Global
Vaccine Action Plan (GVAP) target of 90% or greater
coverage of DTP3 (WUENIC, 2019). Data also revealed
that 19.4 million children under 1 year of age worldwide
did not receive three recommended doses of DTP in 2018,
and an estimated 13.5 million children in same age group
did not benefit from any vaccination, as in figure above:

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Figure 2: Varying coverage across regions

The gap between the best performer, the European

Region, and the lowest performer, the African Region,
was 18% points. The Western Pacific Region and
especially the Region of the Americas dropped in
coverage. The biggest gains had been made by the
African Region (over a 20 year period), and South
East Asian Region (over 10 year period), as evident
from figure above:
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19
The highest rate of full immunisation was observed
for intervention B (table 1, fig 2). In intervention B
villages, 148/382 (mean 39%, 95% confidence
interval 30% to 47%) children were completely
immunised compared with 68/379 (18%, 11% to
23%) in intervention A villages and 50/860 (6%, 3%
to 9%) in control villages (fig 2). Compared with the
control group, immunisation rates more than double
in intervention A villages and increased by more than
six times in the intervention B villages. There were
no adverse events (severe reaction to immunisation)
reported in either intervention groups.

20
21
In villages within a few kilometres of an intervention
B camp, 452/700 children who received at least one
immunisation (65%, 58% to 72%) were completely
immunised compared with 69/208 children (33%, 23%
to 44%) in villages bordering an intervention A camp.

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 BIBLIOGRAPY
 Immunology Made Ridiculously Simple
(Book)
 https://
www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-d
entistry/immunity
 http://www.hcrowder.com/immune-system-
response.html
 https://www.toppr.com/guides/
biology/immunity-2/
 http://www.microbiologynotes.com/differences-
between-
primary-and-secondary-immune-response/
 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
44607975_Improving_immunisation_coverage
_in_rural_India_Clustered_randomised_control
led_evaluation_of_immunisation_campaigns_w
23
ith_and_without_incentives