HUMAN BEHAVIOR

&
VICTIMOLOGY
 Chapter 1
HUMAN
BEHAVIOR
 Introduction
The physiological adaptations that made humans more flexible than other
primates allowed for the development of a wide range of abilities and an
unparalleled versatility in behavior. The brain’s great size, complexity, and slow
maturation, with neural connections being added through at least the first
twelve years of life, meant that learned behavior could largely modify
stereotyped and instinctive responses
What is Human Behavior?
Human behavior is the voluntary or involuntary attitude a
person adopts in order to fit society’s idea of right or wrong. It is
partly determined by heredity and environment, and is modified
through learning. It is also the way human being acts. Many people
use the word “behavior” to mean conduct. But in psychology and
other behavioral sciences, behavior is regarded as any activity of a
person.
Viewpoints in Human Behavior
 

Some of the viewpoints in the study of human behavior include:

1. Neurological. This emphasizes human actions in relation to

events taking place inside the body, especially the brain and the
nervous system.
 2. Behavioral. This viewpoint is focuses on external
activities that can be observed and measured.
 
3. Cognitive. It is concerned with the way the brain
processes and transforms information in various ways.
 
4. Psychoanalytical. This emphasizes unconscious motives
stemming from repressed sexual and aggressive impulses in
childhood.
 
5. Humanistic. This focuses on the subject’s experiences,
freedom of choice and motivation toward self-actualization.
 
Factors Affecting Human Behavior

Three important factors affect human behavior. They are as

follows:
 
1. Heredity
 
Heredity is determined by genes. Genes are segments of cell
structures called chromosomes by which parents pass on traits to
their offspring. Genes are composed of chemical substances that give
the offspring a tendency toward certain physical and behavioral
qualities.
 
 2. Environment. This consists of the conditions and factors that
surround and influence an individual which can cause certain
behavior patterns. For example, unfamiliar surroundings may cause
arouse curiosity or fear, depending on the circumstances. An
intermediate level of arousal tends to have the most favorable effect
on behavior.
 
 3. Learning. This is the process by which behavior
changes as a result of experience or practice. A person
learns behavior through new environments that provide
ample examples of new behavior; provide instruction or
opportunity to practice new behavior, and reward or
punish new behavior. Learning takes place constantly
because people are always being given new problems to
solve or are being shown new ways of doing things.
 
 
Basic Types of Human Behavior

Human behavior can either be inherited or learned:

1. Inherited Behavior. Inherited or innate behavior refers to any

behavioral response or reflex exhibited by people due to their genetic
endowment or the process of natural selection. The survival of the
species is contingent on behavior like breathing, ingesting food,
voiding waste, mating and defending oneself. These behaviors are
modified acts on an individual.
 2. Learned Behavior. Learned or operant behavior
involves cognitive adaptation that enhances the human being’s ability
to cope with changes in the environment and to manipulate the
environment in ways which improve the chances for survival, such as
verbal communication, logical problem-solving techniques, job skills,
etc.
 
 
Dimensions of Human Behavior

Following are the different personality

dimensions that affect human behavior:
 
1. Extraversion. It is the dimension that dictates
conditioned ability and the principal factor in anti-
social behavior. Although these components do not
account for all personality characteristics, they form
the basic structure from which much of the person’s
behavior originates. Extraversion represents the
central nervous system’s tendency that determines
need for stimulation and excitement.
 2. Neuroticism. Neuroticism reflects an innate
biological predisposition to react physiologically
to stressful or upsetting events. Basically,
neuroticism represents emotionality. Persons
high on neuroticism react intensely much longer
to stress and are generally moody, touchy,
sensitive to lights, and anxious or nervous.
People at the lower end of the continuum are
emotionally stable, calm, and even tempered.
 3. Psychoticism. It is characterized by cold cruelty, social
insensitivity, disregard for danger, troublesome behavior, dislike of
others, and an attraction toward the unusual. The individual high on
psychoticism tends to be an impulsive, aggressive individual without
appreciable conscience or concern for others. In many ways, the
descriptors of psychoticism follow those of the classical “psychopath,” or
more commonly, the “sociopath.”
Explanations in Human Behavior

Some psychological explanations in human behavior

are as follows:
 

1. Relationship of Mind to Crime

 

Not a few comments are heard about the criminal

mind, and the literature devoted to explaining it is
extensive. Before the development of more scientific
theories in human behavior and mental illness, one of
the most popular explanations was demonology.
According to this theory, individuals were thought to
be possessed by good or evil spirits, which caused
good or evil behavior.
 

2. Psychiatric Approach
 
Psychiatry is the field of medicine that specializes in the
understanding, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental
problems. Psychoanalysis is a branch of psychiatry which employs a
particular personality theory and a specific treatment method, usually
an individual case study. Psychiatry views each person as a unique
personality who can be understood only by a thorough case study.
3. Personality Theory
Emotional conflict and personality deviations characterize many
criminals, especially habitual offenders, leading some theorists to
conclude that these deviations cause human to become criminals. The
critical questions are whether these factors distinguish criminals from
law-abiding persons and, if so, whether the traits cause the questionable
behavior.
4. Intelligence and Crime
 
Closely associated with the mental disorder approach is the linking
of crime and intelligence. It is argued that low intelligence causes crime.
This approach has long historical roots. Early studies of histories of
family that became criminals concluded that the behavior of human that
became criminal was caused by low intelligence
5. Cognitive Development Theory
Another psychological theory that has been used to explain
human behavior is cognitive development. This approach is based on
the belief that the way in which people organized their thoughts about
rules and laws results in either criminal or non-criminal behavior.
Psychologists refer to this organization of thoughts as moral reasoning.
 
6. Behavior Theory
Behavior theory is the basis for behavior modification, one approach
used in institutionalized and non-institutionalized settings for changing
behavior. The primary thesis is that all behavior is learned and can be
unlearned. The approach is concerned with observable behavior, in
contrast to the traditional psychoanalytic emphasis on deep, underlying
personality problems that must be uncovered and treated
7. Learning Theory
 
Learning theory acknowledges that individuals have physiological
mechanisms that permit them to behave aggressively. This theory differs
from behavior theory in that the latter emphasizes performance and
reinforcement, whereas the learning theory emphasizes that learning may
be accomplished by using other people as models. It is not necessary to
engage in behavior only if they have incentives and motivations to do so.
C
 Human are evaluative creatures. Judgments are continually made
about the behavior of others, and those individuals who engage in that
behavior. In societies everywhere, there are rules governing the
behavior of members, and throughout history, human rules the
dictated correct and incorrect behavior that have been laid down and
enforced.
What is Deviant Behavior?

A deviant behavior is a behavior which does not adhere to

widely-accepted social or cultural norms. For example, murder is a
form of extreme deviant behavior which violates the cultural norm
which states that it is unacceptable to kill another human being.
 
 
Basic Perspectives on Deviant Behavior

Hereunder are the three basic perspectives to define deviant

behavior as follows:

1. The Absolutist Perspective

 
The absolutist perspective argues that the quality or
characteristics of deviance resides in the very nature of an act itself.
Deviance is intrinsic to certain actions, it dwells within them. The evil of
deviance, this view holds that deviance is inherent to the behavior itself.
If something is deviant, it is wrong now and forever else.
2. The Normative Perspective
 
The normative perspective locates the quality of
deviance not in the actions themselves but in the fact
that they violate the norms of the culture in which
they take place. An action is deviant by insulting the
customs of a society; when it runs counter, it is an
instance of deviant behavior. To the normative
sociologist, deviance is the formal violation of the
norms.
 
3 . The Reactive Perspective
 
The reactive perspective adopts a position that is even more
radically relativistic than the normative sociologists. They argue that
the characteristics of deviance can be found in how actual behavior is
judged. To qualify as deviance, an act must (a) be observed or at least
heard about; and (b) generate concrete punishment for the
perpetrator.
Traditional Theories of Deviant Behavior

In sociology generally, and in the sociology of deviance

specifically, the term “theory” is used a bit more broadly than in the
natural sciences. Hereunder are traditional theories of deviant
behavior, as follows:
1. Demonic Possession
 
Historically, the oldest explanation for deviant behavior has been
the demonic possession. For millennia, evil spirits, including the devil,
were thought to cause men and women to engage in socially
unacceptable behavior. Traditionally, Stone Age humans drilled holes
into the skulls of individuals who engaged in wrongdoing of some kind -
who, today would be recognized as being mentally ill - so evil spirits
could escape.
 
2. Human Freewill
 
The first sophisticated, academically respectable perspective
theory of criminal behavior is the “human freewill.” Rather than being
seen as a result of seduction by demons, violations of rules, norms and
laws were thought to be caused by human freewill - a rational
calculation of pleasure and pain. Individuals choose among a number
of alternative courses of action according to benefits they believe will
accrue to them.
3. Social Pathology
Social pathology is the name given to the late nineteenth and
early twentieth-century perspective which argued that: (a) society
is very much like an organism; and (b) deviance is very much like a
disease. The social pathology school abandoned physical defect as
the major cause of deviance and crime. Rather, the deviant is seen
as the individual who cannot or will not adjust or adapt to
conventional society
5. Social Disorganization
 This viewpoint shifted the location of the pathology from the
individual to social structure. While social pathologist argued that
the problem resided in the failure of some individual to adapt to
the society in which they lived, social organization argued that the
entire neighborhood had become so disorganized that adapting to
them inevitably entailed engaging in certain forms of deviant
behavior.
6. Functionalism
 
Functionalism is a theoretical perspective that emerged in the
1930s, that emphasized the cause and consequences of social
cohesion as well as phenomenon termed as “collective conscience.”
Functionalism asked the basic question, “How is social order
possible?” The answer which appears is that societies, in a more or
less unintended, non-conscious fashion, have protected themselves
over the years by prohibiting harmful activities.
 
7. Anomie or Strain Theory
 
The theory was born in 1938 with the insight that deviant
behavior could be caused by a disturbance in the social order, which
sociologists called anomie. This is because they wondered why the
frequency of deviant behavior varied so dramatically from one
society to another and from one group to another. This is also called
strain theory, because deviant behavior is hypothesized to be the
result of a certain kind of strain.
8. Differential Association
 
The first and most fundamental proposition of the theory of
differential association states that criminal behavior, and by
extension, deviance is learned. This proposition is directed against
biological theories which assert that crime is caused by genetic,
metabolic, or anatomical defects, and against the view that criminal
activities are hit upon accidentally or through independent
invention.
9. Control Theory
 
Control theory is a major explanation in the fields of deviant
behavior and criminology; though, it is used almost exclusively in
the study of delinquency. This theory does not see a departure from
the norms as problematic and takes for granted the allure of
deviance and crime. Its argument is why most people do not engage
in delinquent behavior, and why they do not break the law and
engage in a life of crime.
Contemporary Theories of Deviant Behavior
 
Three perspectives largely developed are as follows:

1. Labeling Theory
 
It is closely related to social-construction and symbolic-
interaction analysis, and was developed by sociologists during the
1960s. It holds that deviance is not inherent to an act, but instead
focuses on the tendency to negatively label those seen as deviant
from standard cultural norms.  It is concerned with how the self-
identity and behavior of individuals may be determined or
influenced by the terms used to describe or classify them.
 

2. Conflict Theory
 
This is a perspective in social science that emphasizes the social,
political, or material inequality of a social group that critiques the
broad socio-political system, or that otherwise detracts from
structural functionalism and ideological conservatism. Conflict theories
draw attention to power differentials such as class conflict, and
generally contrast historically dominant ideologies.
 
3. Marxist Theory
 
This is a term that covers work in philosophy that is strongly
influenced by Karl Marx's materialist approach to theory or that is
written by Marxists. It may be broadly divided into 
Western Marxism which drew out of various sources, and the
official philosophy in the Soviet Union which enforced a rigid
reading of Marx called "diamat" - for dialectical materialism" during
the 1930s.
Deviant Behavior and Sociology

Sociologists define deviance as behavior that is recognized as

violating expected rules and norms. It is simply more than
nonconformity, and it is behavior that departs significantly from
social expectations. In the sociological perspective on deviance,
there is a subtlety that distinguishes it from the commonsense
understanding of the same behavior
Medicalization of Deviant Behavior
 

Medicalization means to make something a medical issue.

Deviance in this case means bad behavior. Mathematically,
deviance is the measure of how different things are or how much it
fluctuates. So to medicalize deviance, it sounds like professionals in
the field are making this deviant behavior a medical issue.
 
Deviant Behavior and Mental Disorders

Deviant behavior and mental illness often go hand-in-hand.

While not all deviants are considered mentally ill, almost all
mentally ill persons are considered deviant, since mental illness is
not considered "normal." When studying ng deviance, sociologists
also often study mental illness.
 CHAPTER
3
MENTAL
DISORDERS
 
 Mental disorders from sociological viewpoint are the persistent
inability to adapt oneself to the ordinary environment. It is the
individual’s loss of power to regulate his actions and conduct
according to the rules of the society. The term is synonymous with
insanity, derangement, aberration, and schizophrenia.
Who is a Normal Person?
 
From the view of human adjustment, a normal person is one who behaves
according to the norms and standards of society. When a person’s behavior
deviates from these norms, his decision is called abnormal. In the final analysis,
the demarcation line between the normal and the abnormal vanishes and
becomes the same as that between the sane and insane, becoming entirely a
matter of degree.
Among the characteristics of a normal person are the following: (a) free
expression of personality; (b) adequate feeling of security; (c) efficient contact
with reality; (d) adaptability to group norms; (e) emotional maturity; (f)
adequate self-knowledge; and (g) integrated and consistent personality.
 
Who is an Abnormal Person?

An individual can be called abnormal when he fails to meet the

characteristics of a normal person. When a person is frustrated in
his attempts to adjust to difficult situations over a long period of
time, he may try to escape from these conflicts by doing any of the
following:
 1. He may compromise with reality by developing imaginary
ailments, phobias, obsessions, or compulsions. This condition is
known as neurosis.

2. He may withdraw from the real world and enter into a world
of fantasy and make-believe where his hidden or unexpressed desires
may be fulfilled. In this state of mind a person becomes psychotic.
 3. Instead of compromising with reality or withdrawing into a
kind of shell causing inner conflicts, the person may go to the other
extreme, and may become very aggressive toward others.
 
4. He is now known as an anti-social person, a psychopath or
sociopath, and when antisocial behavior comes in conflict with the
law, the person becomes a criminal.
 
Classical Types of Mental Deficiencies

The classical types of mental deficiencies are as follows:

1. Idiot
 
It is usually congenital and due to the defective development of
the mental faculties. An idiot is wanting in memory, willpower and
emotion. He cannot express himself by language, is quiet, timid and
easily irritated. He cannot guard himself against common physical
dangers. Mentality never exceeds that of a normal child over 2
years old. The I.Q. is from 0 to 20.
2. Imbecile
 
Although the mental defect is not as severe as that of idiots, he
cannot manage his own affairs. He may be able to speak but with
poor command of language. He can easily be aroused to passion
and may show purposeful behavior. He may be trained to do
simple work under supervision. The mental age may be compared
to a normal child from 3 to 7 years old and the I. Q. is 21 to 40.
3. Feeble-Minded
A person whose mental defect, although not amounting to
imbecility is so pronounced such that he needs care, supervision,
and control for his protection and of others. He is incapable of
receiving benefits from instruction in ordinary school. He lacks
initiative and ability for any work or responsibility. He has a
mentality similar to that of a normal child between 8 and 12 years
old and an I.Q. of 41 to 70. A moron is also considered a feeble-
minded person, although he is of considerably higher intelligence
than an imbecile.
4. Morally Defective
In addition to the mental defect, there are strong vicious and
criminal propensities, so that the person requires care, supervision
and control for the protection of others. He is devoid of a moral
sense and often shows intellectual deficiency though he may be
mentally alert. He is careless, pleasure-loving, and it is only
happiness that counts. This is also a person who lacks sense of
right, and not capable of using his discretion. 
 
 Categories of Mentally-Disturbed Persons
 
The different diagnostics categories of mentally-disturbed persons
are as follows:
1. Paranoid-Schizophrenic

It is a mental disease resembling paranoia, but is also characterized

by autistic behavior, hallucinations and a gradual deterioration of the
personality. Hereunder are the characteristics of a paranoid-
schizophrenic:
 a. There are usually two primary symptoms, i.e., hallucinations -
involves hearing or seeing things that are not really there; and
delusions

b. Involves a false system of beliefs that persists despite

evidence to the contrary.
 
 b. The paranoid-schizophrenic is disturbed to a degree such that
he is out of touch of reality, suffering from psychosis, mentally
deranged or insane.
 
2. Manic-Depressive
 
It is characterized by alternating accounts of mania and
depression. Mania is a kind of insanity characterized by great
excitement, while depression is a disorder characterized by prolonged
feelings of despair and rejection, often accompanied by fatigue,
headaches and other physical symptoms. Some characteristics of a
manic-depressive person include:
• 
 
a. A manic-depressive is usually depressed, is out of touch of
reality, is suffering from psychosis, is mentally deranged or is insane; and
may consider himself unworthy to live. He feels guilty to past sins and
often has delusional beliefs.
 
b. He may believe that he is responsible for all the sufferings in the
world and his current depression is his punishment for living a sinful life;
the potential for suicide is extremely high as the potential for killing the
hostages; and he takes hostages who are members of his own family or
persons known to him.
 c. The person’s speech and movements may be extremely slow.
He may take 15 to 30 seconds or longer to answer a question; and he
speaks about his unworthiness, his sinfulness or his feelings of guilt.
 

3. Anti-Social Personality
  It is a mentally-disturbed person who opposed to the principles
upon which society is based. The characteristics of an anti-social
personality are the following:
 
 a. A person with an anti-social personality is also known as a
sociopath - a person who lacks any sense of social or moral
responsibility due to mental illness; and a psychopath - a person having
personality disorders characterized by anti-social behavior, indifference
to immorality and abnormal changes in mood or activity.
 b. One of the most significant characteristics of this personality is
the absence of conscience or any guilt feelings; and this kind of person
has not incorporated the moral values of society into his life.
 
c. He is often a glib and convincing speaker and presents himself
extremely well.
 
d. The anti-social personality is selfish and strives for physical
pleasure; and most of his pursuits revolve around manipulating people
to acquire personal gains.
 e. He is often impulsive and demands immediate satisfaction,
is unable to learn from past experience, a chronic liar, and a classic
manipulator or con artist. 

4. Inadequate Personality
  It is a type of person who does not fit a particular purpose. Here
are the characteristics of an inadequate personality:
 a. Throughout his life, the person with an inadequate
personality shows ineffective and inept responses to social,
emotional and physical stress; and he is often a high school dropout
and may have a succession of jobs, and having been fired from each
because of poor performance.
 
b. He sees himself as a loser or as someone who always fails; and
taking hostages may be his last attempt to prove that he can succeed;
and the hostage-taking may invite attention from authority figures and
the media, and it could be the high point of his life.
 c. This person will try to show than he can really do
something; and he is usually has clear, but immature thought
patterns, can understand the consequences of his actions, and
can be negotiated with successfully.
 Mental disturbances have no social and economic boundaries
as they find their way into the lives of the rich and famous and the
poor and unknown. There are a number of mental disturbances,
including depression and suicide that enveloped the lives of so
many individuals and how mental disturbances are classified?
What is Abnormal Psychology?

Abnormal psychology is that branch of psychology that studies

unusual patterns of behavior, emotion and thoughts which may or
may not be understood as precipitating a mental disorder. It
identifies multiple causes for different conditions employing diverse
theories from the field of psychology. Much still hinges on what
exactly is meant by "abnormal".
 
Categories of Mental Abnormality

The two important categories of mental abnormality are as follows:

1. Neurotic
 
This refers to relative mild mental disorders in which the
individual has not lost contact with reality. For example, someone
who is extremely anxious, troubled, and unhappy may be able to
carry out his everyday functions and have a clear perception of
reality. This individual would be classified as neurotic.
2. Psychotic
 
This refers to severe mental disturbances wherein psychotic
individuals have lost contact with reality. The psychotic individual’s
thinking or perception is so distorted that he lives in a psychological
world far removed from others. The psychotic individual might hear
voices that are not present or thinks that he is a famous person,
such as Jesus Christ, Allah or Mohammed.
 
 
Classifications of Mental Abnormalities
 

Mental abnormalities may be classified according to the

following disorders as follows:
 

1. Anxiety Disorders
 
Anxiety is usually defined as diffuse, vague, and highly
unpleasant feelings of fear and apprehension. Individuals with high
levels of anxiety worry a lot. The main features of anxiety disorders
are motor tension, hyperactivity, apprehensive expectations and
thoughts, vigilance and scanning reflected in hyper-attentiveness.
 
2. Somatoform Disorders  
Somatoform disorders are mental disturbances in which
psychological symptoms take a physical or somatic form even
though no physical causes can be found. Although these symptoms
are not caused physically, they are highly distressing for the
individual and the symptoms are not real or fake.  
3. Dissociative Disorders 
It is defined as conditions that involve disruptions or
breakdowns of memory, awareness, identity or perception. People
with dissociative disorders use dissociation, a defense mechanism,
pathologically and involuntarily. Dissociative disorders are thought
to be primarily caused by psychological trauma.
5. Affective Disorders
 
The affective disorders are disturbances of mood. They include
disorders with wide emotional swing, ranging from deeply
depressed to highly euphoric and agitated. Depression can occur
alone, as in major depressions, or it can alternate with mania as in
bipolar disorder.
•
6. Schizophrenic Disorders
 
These are characterized by distorted thoughts and perceptions,
odd and inappropriate communication, abnormal motor behavior,
and social withdrawal. The term schizophrenia comes from the
Latin words - “schizo” meaning split and “phrenia” meaning mind.
The individual’s mind is split from reality and personality loses its
unity.
 
7. Personality Disorders

Personality disorders develop when personality traits became

inflexible and thus maladaptive. Individuals with these maladaptive
traits often do not recognize that they have a problem and may
show little interest in changing. Personality disorders involves odd
or eccentric behavior, dramatic, emotional or erratic behavior, or
fearful of anxious behavior - usually anti-social personality
disorders
 8. Substance Abuse Disorders

A problem associated with drugs use is called a substance-

abuse disorder. This type of disorder is characterized by one or
more of the following features: (a) pattern of pathological use that
involves frequent intoxication, it is in a sense, psychological
dependence; (b) a significant impairment of social or occupational
functioning attributed to the drug use; and (c) physical dependence
that involves serious withdrawal problems.
• 
9. Psychosexual Disorders
 
It is characterized by individuals with sexual problems mainly
caused by psychological factors. Two major categories of
psychosexual disorders are paraphilia, in which the source of the
individual’s sexual arousal is bizarre; and psychosocial dysfunctions
in which inhibitions in the sexual response cycle occur, for example
an individual has difficulty achieving orgasm.
 
Explaining Mental Abnormalities

Following are some important explanations of abnormal

behavior:

1. Culture and History

 
Throughout time, societies have proposed several explanations
of abnormal behavior within human beings. Beginning in some
hunter-gatherer societies, animists believed that people
demonstrating abnormal behavior was possessed by malevolent
spirits.
2. Multiple Causality
 
Most mental disorders are composed of several factors, which
is why one must take into account several theoretical perspectives
when attempting to diagnose or explain a particular behavioral
abnormality or mental disorder.
 
3. Mind and Body
 
Abnormal psychology revolves around two major paradigms for
explaining mental disorders, the psychological paradigm and
the biological paradigm. The psychological paradigm focuses more
on the humanistic, cognitive and behavioral causes and effects of
psychopathology.
 
4. Health Anxiety Disorder

Abnormal psychology has categorized some diseases. This kind

of sickness can be growing up from a small level to an extreme case.
Anxiety disorder is a key point in abnormal cognitive approach
which can change the body appearance and system to negative
aspects, increases their variations during illness period.
 
Models of Psychological Abnormality

There are four main models to explain psychological abnormality.

They are as follows:
 
1. Biological Model
 
This model is based on the assumption that if the brain, neuro
-anatomy and related bio-chemicals are all physical entities and work
together to mediate psychological processes, then treating any mental
abnormality must be biological.
 
2. Behavioral Model

This assumes that all maladaptive behavior is essentially acquired

through one's hereditary traits, environment, and modified thorough
learning. Therefore, the main solution to psychological illness under
this model is aversion therapy.
 
3. Cognitive Model
 
It is quite similar to the behavioral model but with the difference
that instead of teaching the patient to behave differently, it teaches
the patient to think differently. Psychiatrists of this model use different
methods for cures.
4. Psychodynamic Model

It is the fourth psychological model of abnormality, and is based

on the work of the famous psychologist, Sigmund Freud. It is based
on the principles that psychological illness comes about from
repressed emotions and thoughts from experiences in the past.
 CHAPTER
 
5
 
CRISIS MANAGEMENT
 In responding to a call involving an individual who appears
to be mentally or emotionally disturbed, be extremely careful to
handle that person with understanding, diplomacy and tact. The
mentally or emotionally disturbed individual may be in a very
docile mood in one moment and then become extremely violent
the next.

One should be aware also that certain symptoms may be

mistaken as indicators for mental or emotional disorders. For
example, the sweating or twitching of a diabetic, the delirium
that accompanies high fever or severe infection, the irritability
of a person suffering from meningitis, or the violent and
confused state of an epileptic.
Definition of Crisis Management

Crisis management is the expert handling of a crisis or

emergency to reduce or eliminate danger or damage, or the like,
especially on the part of the government. It is also the process by
which the police organization deals with a major event that
threatens to harm the organization, its stakeholders, or the general
public, and the society as well. Three elements are common to most
definitions of a crisis: (a) a threat to the organization; (b) the
element of surprise; and (c) a short decision time.
 
 The general objectives of crisis management are as follows: (a)
resolve crisis without further incidents; (b) safety of all participants;
(c) apprehension of all perpetrators; and (d) accomplish the task
within the framework of current community standards. It is
occasionally referred to as incident management, although several
specialists argue that the term crisis management is more accurate.
 
 
Techniques in Crisis Management

Following are the different techniques in crisis management:

 
1. Locate.
The main objective of this technique is to identify the
physical objective or the exact location where the hostage
situation is taking place - it may be in a structure, in a motor
vehicle or no structure at all. By identifying the physical
objective, it will be able to answer the question propounded by
“where” and must be analyzed from the point of view of police
negotiators and of the suspects.
2. Isolate.
The physical objective and the hostage takers must be isolated
by creating an outer perimeter and keeping the onlookers away
from the police safety lines. This also calls for the limitation of the
mobility of the hostage takers to the smallest area possible which
can be accomplished by establishing an inner perimeter, and
preventing them from observing police activity, either by direct
observation or other ways or means.
3. Evaluate.
In this technique, available timely information are supposed to
have already been collected, and at the disposal of the police
negotiators to come up with an estimate of the situation. The
estimate of the situation must be anchored on the threats,
weaknesses, opportunities and strengths both on the part of the
police and the suspects, giving preferential considerations on areas
of dangers involved in all the participants in crisis situation.
4. Evacuate.
Evacuate the area. Individuals who can be safely removed
from the vicinity should be asked to leave. The evacuation does
not only involve the victims, but also the by-standers who
might be hit in the cross fire in the case of a shootout. Their
presence may aggravate the prevailing condition near the
physical objective, thus creating additional burden on the part
of the police authorities.
 5. Eliminate.
In crisis management, elimination is the process of
removing or getting rid of dangers on the participants in a
hostage situation, especially on the part of the victims, as being
in some way, in the undesirable situation or condition, placing
lives and limbs in jeopardy. This also involves the process of
controlling the dangers posed by the hostage takers to the
extent of placing them under custody after their arrest.
 
 
What is a Hostage Situation?

A hostage situation is a set of circumstances wherein a

suspected law violator is holding a person captive with the use of
force and threat of violence while the police are in close contact
with the suspect and his captive. This would include kidnapping or
abduction to make a political statement. It becomes a hostage
situation when the perpetrator seeks certain concessions from
authorities.
Motives of Hostage-Taking

Why do people in a problem situation take hostages?

1. Hostage-taking guarantees immediate media coverage, and

after repeated hostage incidents, the terrorists hope that the
government might overreact by becoming excessively restrictive
with its own citizens that might cause civil discontent, and
eventually a grassroots movement to overthrow the government.
 
 2. In urban guerilla warfare, hostages are taken with little
regard for law and order. Holdups sometimes involve hostage
and certain guidelines of behavior must be laid down if the police
is to effectively deal with a hostage situation.
 
3. The political terrorists want to show to the public that
the government is unable to protect its own citizens.

4. A husband or wife may take a child as hostage in custody

battles.
 5. It is also very common for hostage-takers to demand
ransom-money in exchange for the release of the hostage.
 
6. Warring nations seek peace after exchange of hostage as
a guarantee of reciprocity.
 
7. Law enforcement officers will most likely encounter
hostage incidents that involve either criminals or the mentally-
disturbed.
 
 a. If the hostages are taken in a criminal situation, it is
usually because the criminal is unable to complete the crime and
escapes before the police responds thus making the hostage-
taking a spontaneous event.
 
b. The criminal’s primary reason for taking hostages is to
ensure his own safety.
 
c. The criminal’s demands are invariably for safe passage
and a means of escape in return for the hostages’ lives.
 8. A mentally-disturbed person may take hostages in order to
right what he believes to be wrong.
Distinct Categories of Hostage-Takers

Hereunder are the distinct categories of hostage takers as

follows:  
1. Persons in Crisis. These are people who take hostages during
a period of prolonged frustration, despair and problem.
 
2. Psychotics. These are mentally-ill people who take hostages
during a period of psychiatric disturbance.
 
3. Common Criminals. These are people who take hostages for
personal reasons, rather than ideological belief.
 4. Prisoners. These are people who take hostages because of
dissatisfaction and discontent regarding their living conditions in
prison.
5. Political Terrorists. These are ideologically-inspired individuals
or groups of people who take hostages because of political and
ideological beliefs.
 
Traditional Reasons in Hostage-Taking
 

Following are traditional reasons why a person takes hostages:

 
1. Criminals
 
The criminals have three common reasons: (a) escape from the
crime scene after the commission of the crime using the hostage as
a bargaining tool to the police authorities; (b) demand additional
money, if the amount of the money taken does not meet the
expected profit; and (c) request for any mode of transportation in
fleeing from the crime scene and get out in the situation they have
found themselves.
2. Prisoners
 
The prisoners have two common reasons: (a) taking hostages
offers better bargaining power and a significant amount of media
coverage; and (b) prison riots generally centers around complaints
concerning prison conditions and demands for improvement.
 
3. Political Terrorists

The political terrorists have three common reasons: (a) political

terrorists take hostages with the intent of getting as much publicity
for their cause; (b) the demands will normally go beyond the
authority of the local police and may require the involvement of the
national government; and (c) the possibility of hostages being killed
is very high since the terrorists may be prepared to die as martyrs.
 CHAPTER
 
6
 
MANAGING HOSTAGE
SITUATION
 Experience has repeatedly demonstrated that the most
effective way to resolve a hostage situation is through the
efficient management of conditions and police activities,
including the control and direction of human and material
resources and which are related to the situation at the disposal
of the police authorities.
 
Intuitively, the police negotiators must know the
applicability of the preceding statement. They must know that
in dealing with hostage situation, they are confronted by a
highly volatile condition in which the goal is the safety of all the
participants, and settling the problem in accordance with the
community norms and standards.
What is Managing Hostage Situation?
 
In police terminology, managing hostage situation is the
directing and controlling of human and material resources by the
police authorities, including all the participants in a crisis, and
which is anchored on the goals and objectives of protecting lives
and limbs of all the participants, preventing collateral damages, and
the taking of suspects into custody.
 Activities in Managing Hostage Situation
 
There are four major activities involved in managing hostage
situation:

1. Planning
  Planning is consisting of work to be performed in order to
predetermine a course of action. This also includes devising viable
options in effectively dealing with hostage situation.
 
2. Organizing
  Organizing is consisting of work to be performed in order to
arrange and relate wok so that it can be accomplished effectively. It
also requires choosing the right persons who will accomplish the
tasks.
3. Leading
Leading is consisting of work to be performed in order to
stimulate people to take effective actions. It is also the process of
influencing the works of participants in crisis management.
 
4. Controlling
Controlling is consisting of work to be performed in order to
assess and regulate work in progress and which needs to be
finished. This also involves issuance of orders as the need arises in a
given precipitating situation.
 Basic Plan in Most Hostage Situation
 

Following are the steps involved in the implementation of the basic plan
acceptable in most incidents involving barricaded person and hostage
situation:
 
1. Identify the Physical Objective
 
The physical objective is the exact location of the event or place where
the barricaded person or hostage situation is occurring. It may be a structure,
either concrete or light materials, a vehicle or a position with no structure or
vehicle involved.
2. Establish Inner Perimeter
  The purpose of an inner perimeter is to control ingress and
egress in coming in and out of the physical objective by the people
involved. This also prevents the escape of the suspects.
 
3. Establish Outer Perimeter
The purpose of the outer perimeter is to restrict vehicular and
pedestrian traffic, including bystander and media that could
interfere with police activities.
4. Organize Fire and Observation Team
 The purpose of the fire and observation team is to provide
cover for the arrest and assault team, and to obtain information
useful in devising a plan of action and estimates of the situation
by direct observation of the physical objective, activities of the
suspect and situation of victims.
 
5. Activate Negotiating Team
  The purpose of the negotiating team is to effectively deal with
the suspect to release the hostages by getting the demands of the
hostage-taker and to represent the concerned authorities in
negotiations. He likewise conveys the policy of the government in
coping with the current crisis.
6. Deploy Arrest and Assault Team
  The arrest and assault team such as the Special Weapons and Tactics
(SWAT) teams are assigned the task of taking the perpetrators into custody, as
well as regaining custody of the victims.
 
7. Maintain Reserve
  In a barricaded person or hostage situation which may take some time,
reserve officers should be standing by to relieve duty teams or officers. A good
formula to follow is that for every three officers deployed, one should held be
on reserve.
Police Informational Briefing

Informational briefing is the roadmap used to maintain an

operation’s sense of direction. However, it is one of the most
overlooked phases of operation during terrorist incidents. It is
providing clear, concise, and timely information.
 
Analysis of the Situation

After the basic plan has been implemented, the team leader
must make a detailed analysis of the situation that should include
the following:
 
1. Mission
 
The task to be performed must be carefully examined and
clearly understood, this is because of the following reasons: (a) it is
the basis for all the actions that are to be undertaken; and (b) it
must be formulated in a clear, concise, and simple terms.
2. Suspects and Hostages

Information concerning the perpetrators and hostages come

from many sources. The most reliable information is obtained by
traditional methods like direct observation and interviewing of
witnesses, victims and others who have knowledge of the situation.

The required information typically encompasses with the

answers to the following questions: (a) where is it happening; (b)
what is taking place; (c) who is the perpetrator; (d) why is it
happening; (e) when did it start; and (f) what are the possible
motives?
3. Terrain

Terrain includes both the natural layout of the land and any
man-made structures such as buildings, fences, roads, etc. The
significance of the terrain must be studied from both the police and
perpetrator’s point of view.
4. Resources
 
The police executive must consider his strengths while assessing the
strengths of his opponents. He must know what resources are
available and those that are needed to deal with situation effectively.
He should not take any action until adequate support is available.
 
5. Complete Plan of Action
 
After an analysis of the situation is completed, the police executive
reviews the basic plan and then completes a plan of action. The leader
should prepare notes to be used when issuing orders.
 6. Preparation of a Checklist
 
The preparation of a checklist can be helpful in guiding
intelligence officer in preparing the proper intelligence analysis.
 
 
 Concluding the Hostage Situation

Every hostage situation differs but most of the time the main goal of a
hostage taker or kidnapper remain the same. The goal of holding an
nnocent person captive is to obtain something which could be money,
objects, or other items. Essentially, taking hostage is a type of
bargaining tool that is used to gain the perpetrator’s wishes to acquire
that something. On the contrary, the goal of most CMT during hostage
situation is to successfully address the situation with no injury to
anyone involved.
Therefore, concluding hostage situation involves the following: (a)
remove perpetrators as quickly as possible: (b) secure the physical
objective; (c) brief media; (d) collect physical evidence; (e) assemble
nvolved personnel; (f) retrieve equipment; (g) identify all property
damage; (h) identify critique data, and (i) handle de-briefing. These
activities are not exclusive and might change depending on the
attendant circumstances of a given barricaded person or hostage
situation incident.
 CHAPTER
7
 
NEGOTIATION APPROACHES
AND
OPERATIONAL
PROCEDURES
 A crisis situation, as seen by the patrol officer, is any event that
involves individuals, usually two or more persons in conflict, who
have reached such a debilitating mental state they seem to have
lost their ability to cope with a situation through what one would
consider normal method, such as discussion or negotiation.

 
Negotiation Approaches Defined

Negotiation approaches is a systematic process of starting work on

a task of negotiating and dealing with hostage-takers wherein the
primary considerations are the arrangement of terms and conditions
between the police authorities and the suspects, and which is
necessary for the release of hostages.
Guidelines in Hostage Negotiation

In hostage negotiation, the following guidelines must be observed:

1. Assess the Situation.

Immediately attempt to identify the cause of the crisis and what can
be done to defuse the hostility. Is the crime being committed requires
immediate action? Is there a severe medical problem such as wounds or
injuries? Are adversaries in confrontation? Is someone making the
problem worse by continuing to harass or agitate the emotionally and
mentally disturbed individual?
2. Take Immediate Corrective Action.

The adversaries must be separated and isolated from each

other. If arrest is warranted, the negotiator should do so
immediately and have the offender removed. If medical help is
needed, he must see to it that appropriate help is provided. The
negotiator should take minimum risks for his own safety and should
attempt to disarm or neutralize any individual who is attempting or
intending to cause immediate violence unto his person or to others.
 
3. Listen and Observe.
In a crisis situation, one of the most effective techniques is to
make an effort to see exactly what is happening. At this point, the
negotiator must attempt to be totally non-judgmental, and devotes
his full attention to what the principal actor in the crisis situation
are saying or doing. If the crisis stems from a situation that has
been exaggerated in the person’s mind, the negotiator may be able
to discuss the matter and bring the suspect back into a more
rational perspective.
 4. Employ Crisis Diffusion Techniques.
If the negotiator is attempting to defuse a crisis situation,
here are some suggestions to consider:
 
a. He must establish eye contact with the person he is
addressing. This often indicates sincerity and willingness on the part
of the negotiator to listen. If the person he is addressing feels that
there is some dignity even in being taken into custody, the
negotiator will probably have more success in keeping the person
under physical as well as emotional control.
 b. Keep one’s voice low and speak slowly. With an agitated
adversary, his attempts to outshout or dominate the conversation
are not likely to work. Calmly repeating words of comfort or
assurances or understanding may have a soothing effect on the
agitated individual. If he wants to argue, it will be necessary for him
to quiet down to listen to what the negotiator will have to say.
 c. Non-verbal communication should indicate openness and
willingness to listen. A posture of folded arms in a dominant
position will not get the same positive results that the negotiator is
likely to get than when he keeps his arms open and with some
gestures that indicate that he is willing to negotiate. Consider his
skills on the science of “body language.”
 d. Touching the person he is talking may help keep the lines of
communication open. This one, he has to play by ear. Some people
will interpret his touching them as being overly-dominant or
sexually aggressive. With others, there seems to flow the energy of
a positive contact, and the person he has touched will probably give
him more attention.
 5. Follow-Up. Even if the negotiator has defused the crisis
situation, he has probably not solved yet any problem. At best, he
has more than likely only postponed the problem. He should make
follow-up reports as soon as he can, and arrange for professional
intervention in psychology, family counseling, or spiritual guidance,
or whatever other essential needs there appears to be.
Elements of Principled Negotiation
The “seven essential elements” of principled negotiation,
and which are briefly discussed, are as follows:
 
1. People.

Another element involves the people. One rule for the

principled negotiator is to separate the people from the
problem. This means finding a way for solving a problem
without getting distracted by personal elements and
coming to an agreement in a manner that will preserve the
relationship. Saving face can be the key to negotiation
that have reached a stalemate where negotiation has not
yet started.
2. Alternatives

In order to set realistic goals, negotiators must

start by considering certain fundamental questions,
i.e., where each side will be if no agreement is
reached, and what alternative solutions are
available for meeting the negotiator’s goals if he
cannot count on the cooperation of the other side?
Attention to alternatives is an important feature of
distributive as well as of integrative based
approaches.
3. Options

Once parties have begun to build relationship and

exchange information in order to gain a clearer
understanding of the interests at stake, both parties
should turn to the task of generating options. In
negotiation, options are possible solutions to a
problem shared by two or more parties. In integrative
bargaining, options represent possible ways of
meeting as many both parties’ interests as possible.
4. Legitimacy

When bargaining over positions, negotiators create a

situation in which one side must concede his original
claim in order for the negotiation to be successful.
Positional bargaining is a condition in which two
sides lock into incompatible positions. Accordingly,
this can lead to a contest of wills and deadlock. They
maintain that when negotiation is approached in this
way, even when a deal is made, it may be at high cost.
 5. Commitments

A negotiated settlement is only enduring if all parties

honor the commitments they made. Those that fail to
follow through on their promises stand to suffer a loss of
integrity, be subjected to the resentment of the other side,
and risk that their partner in the negotiations and
possibly, others outside of the deal as well if word of
their reputation escapes will refuse to deal with them in
the future crisis situation that might takes place.
 
6. Communication

Negotiation is only possible through communication.

Good communication can change attitudes, prevent
misunderstandings and help to improve relationship.
Moreover, good communication skills are essential to
cogently relay message, and to thoroughly understand
the message of the other side. This means listening
“not to phrase a response, but to understand the other
party as they see themselves.”
 7. Relationship
 
Engaging in reasonable, principled negotiation will
help to maintain a good relationship with the other
side's negotiator. As that relationship grows in
strength, the crisis management team will be better
able to negotiate with the hostage takers based on the
store of goodwill that has been built between them.
What are Operational Procedures?
 

These are the standard policies designed to give guidance and

direction to police personnel regardless of the types of functions to
be performed or police operations to be conducted. These are
aimed at determining a future course of action or conditions in
order to operate effectively in any given situation based on the
norms and conduct set forth by law.
 Standard Operating Procedures

The following standard operating procedures applies to

crisis situations resulting from hostage situation:

1. General Tasking.
When a crisis situation arises out of man-made
emergencies, the Peace and Order Council (POC) at the
appropriate level shall be the operational body that shall
primarily act on the crisis situation. When a crisis results from
aircraft hijacking, disturbances in civil aviation or terrorism that
has national significance, the National Actions Committee on
Anti- Hijacking and Anti-Terrorism (NACAHT) shall principally
deal with the crisis situation.
2. Initial Action.
All police units are required to understand and acquaint
themselves on crisis management doctrine, as such, they will
be held responsible for all their actions. Any police unit taking
cognizance of the incident shall immediately undertake
appropriate actions to contain the crisis situation, and report
the matter to the proper authorities through channel,
regardless of whether such situation is within or beyond its
capability to handle.
3. Action Phase.
The action phase begins as soon as the on-scene Advance
Command Post (ACP) and the tactical intervention are
established, service support units, negotiation teams and the
public affairs personnel arrive and deployed. The action phase
consists of two distinct activities, negotiation and tactical action
or actual intervention which may take place independently,
either simultaneously or in succession.
4. Post Action.
This stage begins as soon as the perpetrators surrender, or
when they are captured or neutralized and the crisis situation
are deemed cleared. The Ground Commander (GC) ensures that
necessary post action activities are undertaken to ensure
normalcy, and bring the responsible to the court. In this
instance, the numerous activities in hostage situation, as
discussed earlier must be given consideration.
 CHAPTER 
8
 
THE FIRST RESPONDERS AND
THE BARRICADE MATRIX
 
 The first responders are the first persons on the scene dealing
with a hostage situation who may set a successful tone for
negotiations or create unnecessary barriers. The first responders
are not negotiators and should advise hostage takers of such. The
crisis management team, upon arrival, will begin the negotiations.
Who are First Responders?

First responders refer to the member of the police service,

usually the patrol officers expected to be the first persons to
go to a very serious accident or to an extremely dangerous
and unexpected situation that must be dealt with quickly.
They assume immediate responsibility for the protection and
preservation of life and property, to maintain the original
condition of the crime scene, and in case of hostage situation,
the physical objective, or when it deems practical effect the
arrest of the offender.
Roles of the First Responders
 

As patrol officers, they are not expected to diagnose

the individual, nor are they expected to distinguish
between the many variations of psychoses and neuroses.
Their principal concern is their own safety and that of the
individual, and to make an effort to see that the person
receives appropriate professional attention.
 
The patrol officers are likely to encounter the mentally
or emotionally disturbed individual under any
circumstances. Many people are emotionally upset
because of the nature of the situation, such as an intense
family fight or a repossession confrontation, but they can
fairly quickly return to a state of relative normality.
 
Guidelines for First Responders
 

The following guidelines may assist the first responders in

undertaking their roles:
 
1. Approach the subject with extreme caution. Maintain a
calm and casual manner and speak to the subject by name, if you
know it. Your voice should be soothing, but firm and business-like.
 
2. Say or do nothing that might threaten or intimidate and
avoid arguing or scolding the subject and don’t allow anyone else to
do so.
 
 3.Make use of friends or relatives who know how to talk to or
deal with the subject, unless there is friction between them.
The subject might have more trust and confidence in you if
you appear to be getting along with friends or relatives.
 
4.Whenever possible, try to stall until you have a follow-up
officer on the scene. This type of situation might be more
volatile than a routine arrest.
 
5.If the situation warrants, and you take the subject into
custody, do so carefully. Avoid painful grips and keep your gun
and other weapons out of the subjects reach.
 
 6. When you transfer custody to psychiatric personnel, give
them as much information about the subject’s symptoms and
behavior. This will help in the diagnosis. Do the same when you
prepare your reports.
Responsibilities of First Responders
The initial responsibilities of the first responders are as
follows:

1. When an officer is confronted with a

hostage/barricaded subject incident, take immediate steps to
prevent injuries to him and others by seeking cover and
concealment, and by controlling the prevailing condition and
situation.
  2. Evaluate the situation, gather and disseminate
information, clear the immediate area of any bystanders or
injured victims when possible, and attempt to avoid
confrontation in favor of controlling and containing the
situation until the arrival of crisis management team.
 3. Hold and segregate all witnesses for debriefing and the
conduct of individual interview, although later a group interview
can also be conducted. Direct responding units to positions that will
minimize the movement of the suspect and prevent his escape.
 
4. Notify communications to request priority radio traffic and
request a supervisor respond to the scene. Advise responding units
of the safe route to enter the area with and any helpful information
regarding the suspect and location.
 5. Maintain radio contact at all times, verify complaint and
determine perpetrator’s location, weapons, including the hostage
status condition. Communicate findings to the tactical operations
center.
 
6. Establish perimeters, request necessary support,
communicate safe entry and exit routes, and evacuate the trapped
and the injured, and maintain command and control, and fill out
the first responders’ report form.
 What is Barricade Matrix?

This refers to the statement on the different activities, numerous

events and the sequence of elapsed time in harmony with the
chronological operational undertakings to be made by the crisis
management team and police negotiators, and which prescribing the
course of action in a precipitating condition with a relative high
volatile terrorists’ hostage taking incident.

Although every hostage situation is different, however a generic

series of events takes place. The reason for formulating this matrix is
to enable police officers responsible for the planning and response to
such terrorists’ incidents to have a starting point for the resolution of
the problem. This matrix has been designed around the first thirty
minutes of a terrorist attack.
 However, it should be understood that the time frame or
individual segments certainly expand or contract during actual events
of terrorist’s hostage situation. It should likewise be understood that
the first thirty minutes is probably the most dangerous in a terrorists’
incidents. The actions taken during these preliminary stages will
ultimately affect subsequent events.
 
Morever, the required courses of action might be influenced by
the prevailing situation or condition confronted by the CMT and the
police negotiator. Therefore, the flexibility in its implementation
must be also taken into consideration, based on the real time
essential elements of information relative with the incident
Importance of Elapsed Time
 

Several authorities have underscored the importance of

negotiators saving time during hostage and barricade incidents.
Letting time to pass has advantages during hostage situation,
regardless of whether or not it serves the following: (a) reduce the
anxiety or emotional burden of the individual in crisis; (b)
completely and optimally deploy a crisis intervention structure; (c)
intensively gather information; (d) create a relationship of trust
between the perpetrator and negotiators; (e) reduce the
undesirable effects of intoxicants; (f) increase the chances of
establishing the Stockholm syndrome, if there are hostages; and (g)
foster the desire for certain basic, but negotiable needs.
 Opportunities Provided by Elapsed Time

However, maintaining a constant communication channel by the

elapsed of time between the police and the individual in crisis allows the
latter to vent negative emotions, establish a relationship of trust with
police negotiators, find alternatives to the situation, and minimize the time
available to brood over problems.

In addition, authorities evaluate the hostage situation by gathering

background information on the incident. Hence, this also requires enough
time. It is significant because it helps them create a plan for how to
respond to the incident. Each situation is unique and must be carefully
evaluated in order to obtain the desired results, which is the safe release of
the hostages.
 Elapsed time can likewise give all the participants in a
crisis situation with the opportunities that will favor most the
outcome of the hostage negotiation, provided that the CMT
and the police negotiator are always on the top of the
situation, and ready to react on any escalating situation that
might transpire at any opportune time.
Contradicting Ideas on Elapsed Time
 
Two observations contradict the widespread idea that
time is always on the police’s side during critical incidents.
These are as follows:

1. From the moment that the emergency call is

made, every hour that passes without contact with a
negotiator diminishes the chances that a successful
verbal contact will be established with the perpetrator.

2. The greater the proportion of the operation spent

in negotiations, the greater is the probabilities of
voluntary and non-violent surrender of the perpetrator.
 CHAPTER
 
9
 
CONTEMPORARY TERRORISM
 Acts of terrorism have been known throughout history.
Terrorism became widespread at the end of the Middle-Ages when
political leaders were subjected to assassination by their enemies.
The term “terrorism” is used to refer to acts of violence carried out
for political motives by organizations which are not recognized as
organs of the legitimate state within a given territory nor officially
at war with that territory.
 
 
 Terrorism Defined

Terrorism is “. . . violence for effect . . . not primarily; and

sometimes not at all for the physical effect of the actual target, but
rather for its dramatic impact on an audience.” Terrorism is “the
calculated use of violence or the threat of violence to attain goals,
often political or ideological in nature through fear, intimidation or
coercion.
 
It usually involves a criminal act often symbolic in nature and
intended to influence an audience beyond the immediate victim.”
Terrorism is “violent criminal behavior designed to generate fear in
the community, or a substantial segment of it, for political purposes.”
It is often used to assert that the political violence of an enemy is
immoral and unjustified
 Contemporary Terrorism

The contemporary terrorists can be influenced by a number of factors:

1. Mass-Media. No matter what the terrorist cause may be, one of their
most important objective are to publicize their cause to the widest audience
possible. The existence of a highly-efficient media network therefore is a
factor in any terrorist scenario that must not be underestimated. Today’s
technology gives terrorists the opportunity to gain worldwide attention on
primetime television on the same day as the event, if not the same time, as
the event, which guarantees them “column inches” and banner headlines in
the world press the following day. There is seldom a day when some type of
coverage of terrorist events does not appear in the media around the world.
 2. Communication. The second factor which
influenced the “New Terrorism” is communication, where
technological advances in the last 15 years or so, have enhanced
terrorist capabilities for operating in any part of the world
quickly, efficiently, and with relative ease. This single factor has
contributed to the growth of transnational and international
terrorism in the last decade and has removed the terrorists from
the realm of parochial “freedom fighters.”
 
3. Potential for Super-Violence. Here again, technological
advances may be seen to affect contemporary terrorists and their
capabilities. The abilities of terrorists are now greatly enhanced with
the advent of surface-to-air and surface-to-surface missiles, of laser
devices, and of chemical, biological and nuclear weapons. In the
wrong hands, these modern technological advances could prove
devastating.
 
 
Organizational Structure

The components for an organized terrorist group are the

following:

1. Leaders
 
With the exception of some anarchist groups, all other terrorist
groups boast the types and forms of their leadership in some form
or another. As in military and police circles, a leadership is
necessary to make policy, lay plans and give directions and orders
for the organization--conventional or unconventional.
2. Active Cadres
 
The active cadres are the doers, the men of action who carry
out order. They are normally organized into small active service
units or cells, each specializing in one particular tactic, each
containing an expert in every field. A typical active support cadre
may consist of 4 to 6 bombers or arsonists or assassins, and so on.
 
3. Active Supporters
 
They are the groups who provide the logistical needs to sustain
terrorist operations. They provide safe houses, weapons,
ammunition, vehicles, medical support, food, and money. Active
supporters are a valuable source of intelligence and information for
use by the terrorist organizations.
 
4. Passive Supporters
 
The passive supporters are the most difficult elements to define
and recognize. They consist of people who are sympathetic to the
cause and purpose of the terrorist organizations, but often will not
stand up and refuse to be counted for fear of getting involved. They
usually serve as the front organizations in support of the terrorists’
cause.
 
 
Distinct Groups of Terrorists
 

The terrorists are grouped into three separate and distinct

groupings:
 
1. National Terrorists.
They are terrorists who operate and aspire to win political
power within a single nation. There is great variation in the
scope and intensity of national terrorists. They usually turn to
terrorism as a practical matter because their opponents have
overwhelming military and political superiority. Their ultimate
goal is to seize control of the government.
2. Transnational Terrorists.

They are terrorists who operate across national borders,

whose actions and political aspirations may affect individuals of
more than one nationality. Their activities reflect an increasing
degree of collaboration between terrorists in widely separated
geographic areas. In brief, the national scope of most terrorist
activity by this group is a thing of the past.
 3. International Terrorists.

They are a group terrorists controlled by and whose

actions represent the interests of a sovereign state. It is
important to understand that not all international terrorist acts
are carried out by terrorists from originating states. Often,
there is “drifting” whereby contract jobs are undertaken on
behalf of a government by foreign groups.
 
 Varied Tactics of the Terrorists

Some of the common tactics employed are as follows:

1. Bombing.

The tactic common to most terror groups is bombing. Of all

terrorist incidents recorded over the last several decades,
approximately 70% were attributable to terrorist bombing.
The bomb is a popular weapon because it is cheap to
produce, easy to make, has variable uses and is difficult to
detect and trace after the event. The term Improvised
Explosive Device (IED) is now commonly used by many law
enforcement agencies as well as military forces around the
world.
 2. Hoaxes.

Whatever type of IED the terrorists will use, it is merely

to establish credibility, to show that they mean business.
Once their credibility is established, they can continue to
disrupt, not destroy, by using well-made hoax bombs. The
right proportion of hoaxes in combination with live IEDs
can keep security forces guessing for a long time.
 
3. Arson.

Although not a popular tactic among terrorists, arson

has been employed to destroy and disrupt such targets
as public utilities, political headquarters, and more
commonly, economic and industrial targets such as
shops, factories, hotels, and shopping malls. The most
popular method of starting fires is with a time-delay
incendiary device, often carried in a cigarette packet and
when planted are always difficult to detect.
 4. Hijacking.

Hijacking and skyjackings were very much an event in the

1960s and 1970s. Hijackings of vehicles carrying staple goods are
a favorite tactic of terrorists and fitted their style of armed
propaganda. The hijackings would be quickly followed by the free
distribution of the vehicle’s cargo to the poor and needy together
with propaganda advertising the terrorist cause. In any terrorist
activity, the hijacking of vehicles can, and should be, associated
with atrocity.
 
5. Ambush.

Thoroughly planned ambushes seldom fail. This is

especially true of terrorist ambushes which are well thought-
out, with precision that the terrorists have time on their side
and will spend weeks, if not months, preparing for an
operation. To this advantage is the fact that they can choose
their own time and place of operation and, if the intended
victim continually uses the same route, the terrorists can
conduct countless rehearsals before actually moving in for the
kill.
 6. Kidnapping.
Not all ambushes are designed to kill the principal were
proven in the recent ambushes and kidnapping in the southern
part of the country. They were acted out with extreme
precision and with definite goals in mind by two separate,
dedicated terrorist groups: the Abu Sayyaf Group and the Moro
Islamic Liberation Front. Kidnapping-for-ransom accounts for
about 8% of terrorist incidents during the recent past and must
be still viewed as a serious option open to terrorist groups.
 
7. Assassination.
Assassination is perhaps the oldest of all terrorist tactics in
the book, and is still widely used today. Targets are often
predictable and assassinations are invariably claimed by the
terrorists themselves who operate against government officials,
corporate executives, police, and security officials among others
8. Hostage-Taking.
The difference between kidnapping and hostage-taking is
extremely fine in the world of terrorism. Indeed the two terms
are often used interchangeably. However, the kidnapper would
normally be regarded as someone who confines his victim in a
secret hideaway and makes material demands, i.e., money,
weapons, release of prisoners, whereas the hostage-taker will
confront authorities and openly hold his victim for ransom.
 CHAPTER
 
10
 
TERRORISTS NEGOTIATION
 
 The terrorist group is one of the most widely-publicized groups
but the least understood of our time. It is generally believed that
the political terrorists, including international terrorists and the use
of “proxies,” are of recent origin that are both very dreadful and
effective weapons, and that society has become so vulnerable to
them, and that government can no longer resist a handful of
determined people.
Terrorists Negotiation Defined

Terrorist negotiation is a complicated crisis intervention process

that comprises a system of interrelated conditions, activities, and
behaviors needed to resolve a highly volatile terrorist, and it is a
process by which compromise or agreement is reached while
avoiding untoward incident.
Considerations in Negotiating with Terrorists

When negotiating with the terrorists, consider the following:

1. The terrorists’ mission has been well planned and rehearsed

prior to its execution.
 
2. The terrorists have a great deal of information about their
stronghold. They normally place a defensive perimeter of personnel
or explosives around it.
 3. There is one leader of the group and he is probably the
spokesman.
 
4. Only mid-level personnel should negotiate with the terrorists
hostage takers.
 
5. Attempts to convince the terrorists that their point has been
taken, their demands heard, and any further injuries caused to
them will only discredit them in the eyes of the public.
Difficulties in Dealing with Terrorists

 
Dealing with terrorists hostage takers is not an easy task. There
are difficulties met in the process:
 
1. Terrorists are usually highly-trained combatants who have
been politically and ideologically indoctrinated.
 
2. They act as part of a group, and their behavior will be
pressured by group dynamics.
 
 3. Most of them receive training in the techniques that will be
used against them in the country chosen for the attack.
 
4. Because of the advances made by security forces around
the world, it is not unusual for one member of the terrorists group
to be accountable for keeping the terrorist from communicating
with authorities “on track.”
 
5. Unless proper interception procedures are used, the
terrorists themselves may be “controlled” by an outside entity
through radio, telephone or media transmission.
Principles in Negotiating with Terrorists

The general principles that should be observed in negotiating

with the terrorists are as follows:
 
1. It is cynical to pretend that negotiations with terrorists
engaged in this particular offensive type of criminal behavior are
welcomed for their own sake.
 
2. Bargaining under these odious circumstances goes against
all natural inclinations as well as the sensibilities of both public and
private entities.
 
Problems in Negotiating with Terrorists

Here are the problems encountered in negotiating with the

terrorists:
 
1. The growing vulnerability of society, coupled with
extraordinary advances in technology offer an individual a real
prospect to challenge the government’s monopoly on the use of
force.
 
2. The terrorist hostage-taking drama is capable of producing
acute conflicts of principles that are not easy to resolve on the part
of the government negotiator.
 3. Terrorists are able to place the state in an inconvenient
position of declaring a value on human life in harmony of the basic
principles of the government “to protect and serve” its
constituents.
 
4. By placing human life in jeopardy the hostage-takers set up
a bargaining position, using the hostages as a tool to get what they
want from the concerned authorities
Reminders in Negotiating with Terrorists

The following reminders should be considered in negotiating

with terrorists:
 
1. Only a society that holds human life to be of no
account can maintain, at all costs, a truly inflexible hard-line
policy of “no negotiations.”

2. When accepting the importance of negotiations, it is a must

to devise tactics and techniques that will ensure the safety of the
hostages, and preserve the integrity of the state.
 
 Tactics in Negotiating with Terrorists
 

What tactics should the police employ in dealing with

terrorists?

1. Terrorists do not worry about their personality description,

and by being flexible, they can modify their behavior through
manipulation. If they don’t respond satisfactorily to one proposal,
try another.
 
2. The negotiator is not, and should not be bent on
understanding the terrorists psychologically.
 
Requirements in Negotiating with Terrorists
 

The following are required while negotiating with

terrorists:
 

1. Control.
The control component represents a condition whereby there
is management of law enforcement resources and control of
all activities, responses and behaviors of persons at or near
the target location.
 
2. Anxiety.
Represents a condition of anxiety on the part of the terrorists
and provisions are made by the authorities for the management
of that anxiety.
 3.Time. Represents a condition where there is a passage of time
and involves the following activities and behaviors, i.e., control of
responses and activities of persons at or near the target location; and
problem-solving on both the terrorists and the government through
their respective negotiators.
 
4.Communication. This represents a condition of dialogue that
enhances the negotiating effort that enables the attainment of the
negotiating goal.
 
5. Dependency. This represents a condition wherein the
terrorist hostage takers develop a reliance on the negotiator.
 
6. Trust. This represents a condition wherein a redirection of
feelings between the terrorists and the negotiator occurs so that a
relationship of confidence can be developed.
 
7. Problem-Solving. This represents a condition wherein the
attainment of acceptable goals is encouraged.
 
 Stages of Negotiation with Terrorists

Following are the different stages of negotiation with terrorists:

1. Introductory Stage
 
This stage represents behavior on the part of the negotiating
participants. The purpose is to gain attention, develop trust and
deal with anxiety.
2. Information-Gathering Stage
 
This stage represents behavior on the part of the
negotiating participants whose purpose is to inquire, to
listen, and to offer feedback on the situation.
 
3. Problem-Solving Stage
 
This stage represents the behavior of the negotiating
participants whose purpose is to identify and to evaluate
choices to resolve the incidents.
 
4. Decisions and Commitment Stage
 
This stage represents the behavior of the negotiating
participants whose purpose is to select courses of action and to
implement options.