Thermodynamics

B.Tech Sem :I

Hours per week Exam scheme

Course
Code title Credits
L T P Th Sess TW P Total

  Thermod 3 0 2 60 40 25 25 150 4
ynamics
 Chapter 2

Energy and Energy Transfer.

 Detailed syllabus

2.Energy and energy transfer

 Forms of energy,
 Energy transfer by heat and work,
 Mechanical forms of work,
 First law of thermodynamics,
 Energy conversion efficiencies
 Learning Objectives

 Introduce the concept of energy and define its

various forms.
 Define the nature of internal energy.
 Define the concept of heat and the terminology
associated with energy transfer by heat.
 Define the concept of work, including electrical work
and several forms of mechanical work.
 Important Quantities and its units

Sr. No. Quantity Unit Symbol

1 Mass Kilogram kg
2 Length meter m
3 Time second s
4 Temp. Kelvin K
5 Amt. of mole mol
matter
Sr.No. Quantity Unit
6 Viscosity -μ Ns/m2
7 Density - ρ kg/m3
8 Thermal Conductivity-k W/mk
9 Specific Heat/Heat Capacity - Cp J/kgK
10 Velocity - v
m/s
11 Heat Transfer coefficient-h W/m2K
12 Temperature Diff. - ΔT K
13 Heat -Q J
Sr.No. Quantity Symbol Unit
14 Area A m2
15 Volume V m3
16 Acceleration a m/s2
17 Gravity g m/s2
18 Force F N
19 Pressure p Pa, N/m2
20 Energy , work E, ΔW Nm, J
21 Power P J/s, W
 Introduction

Conservation of
Energy

What about
average temp of
room ??

What if window
AC???

FIGURE 2–1
A refrigerator operating with its door open in a well-sealed and well
insulated room.
 Introduction

What about
temperature of air in the
room.???

Fig. 2.1 A fan running in a well-sealed and well-insulated room.

 Energy
 It is defined as the capacity for doing work
 Capacity to exert force through a distance
 It is a scalar quantity that can not be observed but
can be recorded and evaluated by indirect
measurements.
 E = F*L
= Nm
= Joule, kJ

10
 Energy

 Thermodynamics provides no information about

absolute values of total energy.
 It deals only with change of the total energy, which
is what matter’s in engineering problems.
 Thus total energy of a system can be assigned a
value zero (E=0) at some convenient reference
point.
 The change of total energy of a system is
independent of the reference point selected.

11
 Forms of Energy

Various form of energy that make up total energy will

be of two form

1) Macroscopic form:
Depends upon outside reference (eg. PE, KE)

2) Microscopic form :
Molecular structure and the degree of the molecular
activity and they are independent of outside
reference frames (eg. U)

12
 Macroscopic form of Energy

1) Kinetic Energy:

Kinetic Energy, (J or kJ)

On unit mass basis, (J/kg or kJ/kg)

2) Potential Energy:

Potential Energy, (J or kJ)

On unit mass basis, (J/kg or kJ/kg)

13
 Microscopic form of Energy
Internal Energy (U):
 The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy is
called the internal energy of a system and is denoted
by U.
 It is related to the molecular structure and the
degree of molecular activity.
 It may also be defined as the algebraic sum of kinetic
and potential energies of the molecules.
. B.
Particles ... A. . . Vessel
14
 More understanding of Internal Energy (U)

Fig. The various forms of microscopic kinetic energies

that make up part of internal energy : Sensible energy
15
 More understanding of Internal Energy (U)

Sensible energy :
 The internal energy associated with the kinetic
energies of molecules is called Sensible Energy.
• Average velocity and the degree of molecular activity
are proportional to Temperature of a gas.
 High Sensible Energy Higher Molecular kinetic energy
Results into higher temperature of the system.
 Lower Sensible Energy Lower Molecular kinetic energy
Results into lower temperature of the system.

16
 More understanding of Internal Energy (U)
Latent energy :
 Various binding forces between the molecules of a
substance, between the atoms within a molecule, and
between the particles within an atom and its nucleus.
 It is strongest in solids and weakest in gases.
 If sufficient energy is added to the molecules of a
solid or liquid, the molecules overcome these
molecular forces and break away, turning the
substance into a gas.
 The internal energy associated with the phase-change
of a substance is called the latent energy. 17
 More understanding of Internal Energy (U)
Chemical energy :
 The internal energy associated with the atomic bonds
in a molecule is called chemical energy.

18
During a chemical reaction,
Some chemical bonds are destroyed while
others (new bonds) are formed, and as result,
the internal energy changes.
 More understanding of Internal Energy (U)
Nuclear energy :
 The nuclear forces are much greater than the forces
that bind the electrons to nucleus.
 The tremendous amount of energy associated with
the strong bonds within the nucleus of the atom itself
is called nuclear energy.

Atom diagram
20
Difference between Chemical energy and
Nuclear energy
 A chemical reaction involves changes in the
structure of the electrons of atoms,
 But a nuclear reaction involves changes in the
core (or nucleus).
 Therefore, an atom preserves its identity
during a chemical reaction,
 But it (atom) loses its identity during a
nuclear reaction.
 More understanding of Internal Energy (U)

 The internal energy of a system is the sum of all

forms of the microscopic energies.

= Internal
Energy

Sensible & Latent + Chemical + Nuclear = Internal

energy Energy Energy Energy
 ENERGY

STORED ENERGY ENERGY IN TRANSITION

Mechanical Exist only when
Potential Energy process Going on
Kinetic Energy Heat Energy
Internal Energy Work Energy
Chemical Energy
Nuclear Energy
etc…
 Thermal Energy
 In daily life, we often refer to the sensible and latent
forms of internal energy as heat, and we talk about
heat content of bodies.
 In thermodynamics, however, we usually refer to
those forms of energy as thermal energy to prevent
any confusion with heat transfer.

Raising of Thermal
Energy by heat
transfer
 Energy Transfer in a system

 How energy may be transported across the

boundary of a general thermodynamic system?

 For closed systems (fixed mass systems) energy can

cross the boundaries of a closed system only in the
form of heat or work.

 For open systems or control volumes energy can

cross the control surface in the form of heat, work,
and energy transported by the mass streams
crossing the control surface

25
 Total Energy of a System

Consider the system shown below moving with a

velocity, at an elevation Z relative to the
reference plane.
CM
General
System

Z
Reference Plane, Z=0

The system posses thermal, kinetic, potential, electric,

magnetic, chemical, and nuclear energy.

Electric, magnetic, chemical, nuclear and surface

tension effects are significant only in some specialized
cases. 26
 Total Energy of a system
 The total energy of the system is normally thought
of as the sum of the internal energy, kinetic energy,
and potential energy.

The total energy of the system E is given below.

On a unit mass basis,

where e = E/m is the specific stored energy, and

u = U/m is the specific internal energy.
27
 Total Energy of a system
The change in stored energy of a system is given by

Unit mass basis, ∆ 𝒆=∆ 𝒖+∆ 𝒑𝒆+∆ 𝒌𝒆 (𝒌𝑱 /𝒌𝒈)

 Most closed systems remain stationary during a
process and, thus, experience no change in their
kinetic and potential energies.

 The change in the stored energy is identical to the

change in internal energy for stationary systems.

If KE = PE = 0,

28
 Problem 2.1 A person gets into an elevator at the
lobby level of a hotel together with his 30-kg suitcase,
and gets out at the 10th floor 35 m above. Determine
the amount of energy consumed by the motor of the
elevator that is now stored in the suitcase.
Solution:
 Problem 2.1 A person gets into an elevator at the
lobby level of a hotel together with his 30-kg suitcase,
and gets out at the 10th floor 35 m above. Determine
the amount of energy consumed by the motor of the
elevator that is now stored in the suitcase.
Solution: The energy stored in the suitcase is in the
form of potential energy, which is mgz.

∆ 𝑬 = ∆ 𝑼 + ∆ 𝑷𝑬 +∆ 𝑲𝑬 (𝒌𝑱 )
=Z
= 10.3 kJ

Therefore, the suitcase on 10th floor has 10.3 kJ more

energy compared to an identical suitcase on the lobby
level = Energy consume by motor for the elevation
change of the suitcase.
 Energy flow rate of a system
 In a open system the energy flow associated with a
fluid stream in the rate form ().
 This is done by incorporating the mass flow rate

Fig. Mass and energy flow rates associated with the flow of steam in a pipe

Energy flow rate: 𝑬˙ =𝒎

˙ 𝒆(𝐤𝐉/𝐬 𝐨𝐫 𝐤𝐖 )
Where, Mass flow rate: ˙
𝒎=𝝆 𝑽˙ =𝝆 𝑨 𝒄 𝒗 𝒂𝒗𝒈 (𝐤𝐠/𝐬)
Here 𝑽˙ =𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆(𝒎𝟑 /𝐬)
31
 Flow Energy/Flow work
The flow work is the work required to cause the flow
of fluid in any passage.
A

p
A
Flow Work = pAΔL (kJ)
= pv = p/ρ (kJ/kg )
where p = pressure at section a, kN/m2
v = specific volume, m3/kg
where does this flow energy come from?
Pressure itself is not a form of energy, but a pressure
force acting on a fluid through a distance produces
work, called flow work. Pa = N/m2 = Nm/m3 = J/m3
So, pv = (J/m3) (m3/kg) =(J/kg )
 Mechanical Energy

 It can be defined as the form of energy that can be

converted to mechanical work completely and
directly by an ideal mechanical device such as an
ideal turbine.
 Example : Kinetic, potential and flow energy.
 Thermal energy is not mechanical energy.
 The mechanical energy of a flowing fluid can be
𝟐
expressed on a unit mass basis as 𝒑 𝑽
𝒆 𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉= + +𝒈𝒁
𝝆 𝟐
 Mechanical Energy

 Mechanical energy can also be expressed in the rate

form as
( )
𝟐
˙ 𝒑 𝑽
˙ 𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉 =𝒎
𝑬 𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉 =𝒎 ˙ + +𝒈𝒁
𝝆 𝟐

is the mass flow rate of the fluid (kg/sec)

 The mechanical energy change of a fluid during

incompressible (ρ = constant) flow becomes
𝒑𝟐 − 𝒑𝟏 𝑽 𝟐𝟐 − 𝑽 𝟐𝟏
∆ 𝒆 𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉= + + 𝒈 ( 𝒁 𝟐 − 𝒁 𝟏 ) (kJ/kg )
𝝆 𝟐
And ∆ 𝑬 ˙𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉=𝒎˙ ∆ 𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉 (kW )
 Problem 2.2. At a certain location, wind is blowing
steadily at 10 m/s. Determine the mechanical energy of
air per unit mass and the power generation potential of
a wind turbine with 60-m-diameter blades at that
location. Take the air density to be 1.25 kg/m3.
Solution. Kinetic energy is the only
form of mechanical energy the wind
possesses, and it can be converted to
work entirely.
 Problem 2.2. At a certain location, wind is blowing
steadily at 10 m/s. Determine the mechanical energy of
air per unit mass and the power generation potential of
a wind turbine with 60-m-diameter blades at that
location. Take the air density to be 1.25 kg/m3.
Solution. Kinetic energy is the only
form of mechanical energy the wind
possesses, and it can be converted to
work entirely.

Therefore, 1770 kW of actual power can be generated

by this wind turbine
 Energy interaction between system and
surrounding

Fig. 2.3 Energy can cross the boundaries of a closed

system in the form of heat and work.
 Heat Energy/ Heat
Room Air 25 ℃

Fig.2.5 Temperature difference is the driving force for

heat transfer. The larger the temperature difference,
the higher is the rate of heat transfer.
 Heat Energy/ Heat
Diathermal
Boundary

T1 Q T2

T1 > T2

Heat is defined as the form of energy that is

transferred between two systems (or a system and its
surroundings) by virtue of a temperature difference.
 Heat
 Heat is the energy transferred, without transfer of
mass across the boundary of system because of
temperature difference between system and
surroundings.
 It can be represented as or Q (kJ)

Per unit mass basis, (kJ/kg)

 Heat transfer rate is denoted by(kJ/s, kW)

 Amount of heat transfer during a process is
determined by integrating over the time interval of
the process: 𝒕 𝟐

𝑸=∫ 𝑸 ˙ 𝒅𝒕 (kJ)
𝒕𝟏
 Basic Heat Transfer Mechanisms
 Conduction
 Convection
 Radiation

Conduction Heat transfer

Conduction heat transfer is a
progressive exchange of energy
between the molecules of a
substance.

41
 SIGN CONVENSION FOR HEAT

For Heat Energy

BOUNDRY

Heat supplied(+ve) SYSTEM

Heat rejected( -ve)
SURROUNDINGS
 Net heat energy exchange

Surrounding

System
System
Boundary

The net heat transferred to a system is defined as

Since heat transfer is process dependent (Path

Function), the differential of heat transfer Q is called
inexact.
43
 Work Transfer / Work Energy / Work
In mechanics, Mechanical work is
𝟐
𝑾 =∫ 𝑭𝒅 𝒔 (J or kJ)
𝟏

This definition of work is not sufficient in

thermodynamics as energy transfer in the form of heat
also. Energy transfer by Q or W can not be judged.
According to Obert
Work is defined as the energy transferred, without
transfer of mass across the boundary of a system
because of an intensive property difference other than
temperature that exists between system and
surroundings.
 Work Transfer / Work Energy / Work
According to Obert
Work is defined as the energy transferred, without
transfer of mass across the boundary of a system
because of an intensive property difference other than
temperature that exists between system and
surroundings.
Frictionless Piston Frictionless Piston

P1 P2 P3 P4

T1 T2 Q
T1 E Transfer T2

P1 > P2, T1 = T2 , E1 > E2 P3 = P4, T1 = T2 E1 = E2

E Transfer to Right is due to work
 Work Transfer / Work Energy / Work
Work may also be defined as follows
Work is an interaction between system and
surroundings, and is done by a system if the sole
effect external to the boundaries of the system could
have been the raising of weight
 Work Transfer / Work Energy / Work

1 2

As per the mechanics it

As per the
is not work as no force
thermodynamics
has moved through a
work has been done
distance
 Work Transfer / Work Energy / Work
Pulley

Frictionless Piston

P3
Gas
T1 Q W

Expansion of a gas in a piston cylinder assembly can be

reduced to raising of a weight against gravity
Work done
 SIGN CONVENSION FOR WORK

For Work Energy

BOUNDRY

SYSTEM Work done by system(+Ve)

Work done on system(-Ve)

SURROUNDINGS
 Similarity between Heat and Work Transfer
1. They are both boundary phenomena. Both
represents energy crossing the boundaries of a
system.

2. Systems possess energy, but not heat or work. They

are the energy interactions.

3. Both are associated with a process, not a state.

4. Both are path functions & inexact differential (i.e.,

their magnitudes depends on the path followed
during a process as well as the end states. So,
Instead of dQ and dW they are expressed as δQ and
δW respectively.

50
 Similarity between Heat and Work Transfer
Since heat and work are path dependent functions,
they have inexact differentials designated by the
symbol . The differentials of heat and work are
expressed as Q and W.
The integral of the differentials of heat and work
over the process path gives the amount of heat or
work transfer that occurred at the system boundary
during a process.

51
 Dissimilarity between Heat and Work
1. Q is the energy interaction due to temperature
difference only. All other interactions are termed as
work transfer.

2. Q is low grade energy while work is high grade

energy.

3. Heat is the transfer of thermal energy between

systems, while work is the transfer
of mechanical energy between two systems

4. - A system is in mechanical equilibrium when

there is no net force or torque on it.
- A system is in thermal equilibrium when it is at
the same temperature as the environment.
52
 Dissimilarity between Heat and Work

Energy transfer by ΔT
Q
53
 Dissimilarity between Heat and Work

Energy transfer not by

Energy transfer by ΔT
ΔTbut by electrical energy
Q
54
Energy transfer by ΔTQ
Energy transfer not by ΔTbut by electrical energy
 Q=?
Lighting candle
in a room??
W=?

Q=0,W=0
 Energy Transfer by different types of Work

1)Electrical Work
2) Shaft Work
3) Paddle wheel work or Stirrer Work
4) Elastic Work (Work done for stretching a wire)
5) Spring Work
6) Pd work/ Displacement work/ Moving boundary
work/ Expansion/ Compression work

58
 Electrical Work
The rate of electrical work done by electrons crossing a
system boundary is called electrical power and is given
by the product of the voltage drop in volts and the
current in amps.

The amount of electrical work done in a time period is

found by integrating the rate of electrical work over
the time period.

Fig. Electrical power in

terms of resistance R,
current I, and potential
V=IR difference V.
59
 Shaft Work
Energy transmission with a rotating shaft is very
common in engineering practice.
𝜹𝑾 =𝑭 ∙𝒅𝒔 𝜹𝑾 =𝑭 ∙𝒓𝒅 𝜽

2пNT

r = Radius in m
N = Speed in rps
T = Torque in Nm
F = Force in N
 Shaft Work

Energy transmission with a rotating shaft is very

common in engineering practice.
2пNT

𝑻=𝑭 ∙𝒓
𝑻 N
𝑻=𝑭 ∙𝒓 ⇒ 𝑭 =
𝒓

𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 , 𝒔=𝟐 𝝅 𝒓𝑵
𝑾 𝒔𝒉=𝑭 ∙𝒔
𝑻
r = Radius in m
𝑾 𝒔𝒉 =
𝒓
∙ 𝟐 𝝅 𝒓𝑵 N = Speed in rps
T = Torque in Nm
𝑾 𝒔𝒉=𝟐 𝝅 𝑵𝑻 (J/s or W) F = Force in N
 Spring Work
Let length of the spring changes by a
dx under the influence of a force F,
the work done is
𝜹𝑾 𝒔𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 𝑭𝒅𝒙
If k (kN/m) is the spring constant
and the displacement x measured
from , x = 0 when F = 0
𝑭
𝒌= ⇒ 𝑭 =𝒌𝒙
𝒙
 Pdv work/ Displacement work/ Moving boundary
work/ (Expansion/ Compression work) (Wb)

𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑭=𝒑𝑨
𝜹𝑾 =𝒑𝒅𝑽
𝜹𝑾 =𝑭 𝒅𝒙 𝟐
𝟐 𝑺𝒐 , 𝑾 𝟏𝟐 ¿ 𝑾 𝒃=∫ 𝒑𝒅𝑽
𝜹𝑾 =𝒑𝑨 𝒅𝒙 𝑾 𝟏𝟐 =∫ 𝜹𝑾 𝟏
𝑨𝒅𝒙=𝒅𝑽 𝟏
 Pdv work/ Displacement work/ Moving boundary
work/ (Expansion/ Compression work) (Wb)

 Wb is the work due to the moving boundary as would

occur when a gas contained in a piston cylinder
device expands and does work to move the piston.

 The boundary work will be positive for Expansion

work.
 The boundary work will be negative for Compression
work depending upon the process.

To calculate Wb requires fundamental

knowledge of properties of gas.
 Energy Transfer by different types of Work
Net Work Done By A System (Two Type)
 First, work may cross a system boundary in the form
of a rotating shaft work, electrical work or other the
work forms listed above. It is not associated with a
moving boundary.

 In thermodynamics electrical energy is normally

considered to be work energy rather than heat
energy; however, the placement of the system
boundary dictates whether to include electrical
energy as work or heat.

 Second, the system may do work on its surroundings

because of moving boundaries due to expansion or
compression processes.
65
 The net work done by a closed system is defined by

Here, Wout and Win are the magnitudes of the other

work forms crossing the boundary. Wb is the work
due to the moving boundary or Boundary work.

Several types of “other” work (shaft work, electrical

work, etc.) are already discussed.

66
Example 2.4. A gas undergoes a reversible non-flow process
according to the relation p = ( - 3V + 15) where V is the volume
in m3 and p is the pressure in bar. Determine the work done
when the volume changes from 3 to 6 m3.

Solution : p = ( - 3V + 15) bar = ( - 3V + 15) x 105 N/m2

=

[ ]
𝟐 𝑽 𝟐=𝟔
𝑽 𝟓
¿ −𝟑 +𝟏𝟓 𝑽 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟐 𝑽 𝟏=𝟑

[𝟐 ]
❑
𝟑 𝟐 𝟐 𝟓
¿ − (𝟔 −𝟑 )+𝟏𝟓 ( 𝟔− 𝟑 ) ×𝟏𝟎
❑
𝟓
¿ ( −𝟒𝟎 . 𝟓+𝟒𝟓 ) ×𝟏𝟎
¿ 𝟒 . 𝟓× 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑵𝒎=𝟒𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝑱
Example 2-7
A fluid contained in a piston-cylinder device receives
500 kJ of electrical the gas expands against the
piston and does 600 kJ of boundary work on the
piston. What is the net work done by the fluid?

Wele = 500 KJ Wb= 600 kJ

68
 The First Law of Thermodynamics
 The first law of thermodynamics is known as the law
of conservation of energy.
 It states that energy can be neither created nor
destroyed; it can only change forms.
 Joule’s experiments lead to the conclusion: For all
adiabatic processes between two specified states of a
closed system, the net work done is the same
regardless of the nature of the closed system and the
details of the process.

Fig. 3.1 Joule’s experiments

69
 The First Law of Thermodynamics

Fig. 3.2 Fig. 3.3 Fig. 3.4

The work The work (shaft) The work
(electrical) done done on an (boundary) done
on an adiabatic adiabatic system on an adiabatic
system is equal to is equal to the system is equal
the increase in increase in the to the increase
the energy of the energy of the in the energy of
system. system. the system.
70
 The First Law and the Conservation of Energy
The first law of thermodynamics is an expression of
the conservation of energy principle.

A system moving relative to a reference plane is

shown below where z is the elevation of the center of
mass above the reference plane and is the velocity
of the center of mass.

System

Energyin CM Energyout

Reference Plane, z = 0

71
 The First Law and the Conservation of Energy

Energyin CM Energyout

System z
Reference, z = 0
For the system shown above, the conservation of
energy principle or the first law of thermodynamics is
expressed as

or
A major consequence of the first law is the existence
and definition of the property total energy E
introduced earlier.
72
Normally the stored energy, or total energy, of a system
is expressed as, Esystem, is given as

Recall that U is the sum of the energy contained within

the molecules of the system. The internal energy U is
dependent on the state of the system and the mass of
the system.
The change in stored energy for the system is

73
First law of thermodynamics for closed systems, is
written as

If the system does not move with a velocity and has no

change in elevation, it is called a stationary system,
and the conservation of energy equation reduces to

Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout at a

system boundary are: Heat, Work, Mass flow.

74
 Energy interaction between system and surrounding

Fig. 3.5 Energy can cross the boundaries of a closed

system in the form of heat and work.
 Energy interaction between system and surrounding

Fig. 3.6 The energy content of a control volume can be

changed by mass flow as well as by heat and work
interactions.
 The energy balance for a general system is
𝑬 𝒊𝒏 − 𝑬 𝒐𝒖𝒕 =( 𝑸 𝒊𝒏 − 𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 ) + ( 𝑾 𝒊𝒏 − 𝑾 𝒐𝒖𝒕 )+ ( 𝑬 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 ,𝒊𝒏 − 𝑬 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 , 𝒐𝒖𝒕 ) =∆ 𝑬 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎

Expressed more compactly, the energy balance is

or on a rate
form, as

𝒐𝒓 𝑶𝒑𝒆𝒏 𝑺𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎, 𝑸 𝒏𝒆𝒕 − 𝑾 𝒏𝒆𝒕 + ( 𝑬 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 , 𝒊𝒏 − 𝑬 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔, 𝒐𝒖𝒕 ) =∆ 𝑬 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆

𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝑪𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝑺𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 , 𝑸𝒏𝒆𝒕 −𝑾 𝒏𝒆𝒕 =∆ 𝑬 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎

77
For constant rates, the total quantities during the time
interval t are related to the quantities per unit time
as

The energy balance may be expressed on a per unit

mass basis as

and in the differential forms as

78
First Law of Thermodynamics for closed system undergoing Cyclic
Process
Generalized first law of thermodynamics for closed system is

In a cyclic process initial and final state are identical So,

;
𝑺𝒐 , 𝑬 𝒊𝒏= 𝑬 𝒐𝒖𝒕

The energy balance for a cycle can be

expressed in terms of heat and work
interactions as
𝑾 𝒏𝒆𝒕 , 𝒐𝒖𝒕 =𝑸𝒏𝒆𝒕 ,𝒊𝒏
OR 79
First Law of Thermodynamics for closed system undergoing Cyclic
Process
 If a system undergoes a cyclic change ,then the
algebraic sum of the work delivered to the
surrounding is proportional to the algebraic sum of
heat taken from the surrounding.
 Using the same unit for work and heat, the first law

∮ 𝜹𝑸=∮ 𝜹𝑾
for a cyclic process is expressed as

Fig. Cyclic Processes. 𝑸 𝟏− 𝟐+𝑸 𝟐− 𝟏=𝑾 𝟏 −𝟐 +𝑾 𝟐 −𝟏

80
 First Law of Thermodynamics Summary
The energy balance for a general system is

𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝑶𝒑𝒆𝒏 𝑺𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎,𝑸 𝒏𝒆𝒕 − 𝑾 𝒏𝒆𝒕 + ( 𝑬 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 , 𝒊𝒏 − 𝑬 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔, 𝒐𝒖𝒕 ) =∆ 𝑬 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎

𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝑪𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝑺𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 , 𝑸𝒏𝒆𝒕 −𝑾 𝒏𝒆𝒕 =∆ 𝑬 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎

𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝑪𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝑺𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎, 𝑸𝒏𝒆𝒕 −𝑾 𝒏𝒆𝒕 =∆ 𝑼 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎

For a cyclic process

∮ 𝜹𝑸=∮ 𝜹𝑾
Ex. 1 Complete the table given below for a closed
system under going a cycle.
Process Qnet kJ Wnet kJ U2 – U1 kJ
1-2 +5 ? -5
2-3 +20 +10 ?
3-1 -5 ? ?
Cycle ? ? ?
For Process 1-2
-5 = 10
For Process 2-3
= 10
For cycle 0
=0
For Process 3-1
= -5
82
Ex. 2. The following data refer to a closed system which
undergoes a ther­modynamics cycle consisting of four
processes
Process Heat Transfer (kJ/min) Work Transfer (kJ/min)
1-2 Nil - 1000
2-3 40, 000 Nil
3-4 - 4, 000 26000
4-1 -12,000 - 1000

Show that the data is consistent with the First Law of

Thermodynamics and calculate

a) Net rate of work output in kW.

b) Efficiency of the cycle.
c) Change in internal energy for each process.
Solution.
Algebraic sum of heat transfer is

 Algebraic sum of work transfer is

So, which is according to First Law.

(a) Net rate of work = 24,000 kJ/min =24,000/60 = 400 kW Ans(a)

𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎

(b)𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐥 𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 = = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎=𝟔𝟎%
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
(c) We have

Process
kJ/min kJ/min kJ/min
1-2 0 - 1000 1000
2-3 40,000 Nil 40,000
3-4 - 4,000 26,000 -30,000
4-1 - 12000 -1,000 -11,000
Sum 24,000 24,000 0

Thus we see that for the complete cycle the total

change in internal energy is zero.
Ex. 3 A system receives 5 kJ of heat transfer and
experiences a decrease in energy in the amount of 5 kJ.
Determine the amount of work done by the system.

Qin = 5 sE= -5 Wout=?

kJ
kJ
System Boundary
We apply the
first law as

The work done by the system equals the energy input

by heat plus the decrease in the energy of the working
fluid. 86
Ex 4. A steam power plant operates on a
thermodynamic cycle in which water circulates
through a boiler, turbine, condenser, pump, and back
to the boiler. For each kilogram of steam (water)
flowing through the cycle, the cycle receives 2000 kJ
of heat in the boiler, rejects 1500 kJ of heat to the
environment in the condenser, and receives 5 kJ of
work in the cycle pump. Determine the work done by
the steam in the turbine, in kJ/kg.
= 2000 KJ

= 5 kJ =?

= 1500 kJ
87
For a thermodynamic cycle, the first law becomes
= 2000 KJ
= 1500 kJ
= 5 kJ
=?

88
Ex. 5 Air flows into an open system and carries energy at the rate of
300 kW. As the air flows through the system it receives 600 kW of
work and loses 100 kW of energy by heat transfer to the surroundings.
If the system experiences no energy change as the air flows through it,
how much energy does the air carry as it leaves the system, in kW?
𝑬 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 ,𝒊𝒏 =𝟑𝟎𝟎𝒌𝑾
Open
= 600 kW
System
𝑸 𝒐𝒖𝒕 =𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝑾
˙ 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 =𝟎 System sketch:
∆𝑬
Conservation of Energy:

89
Ex. 6 Air undergoes a constant pressure cooling
process in which the temperature decreases by 100 C.
What is the magnitude and direction of the work for
this process?

System:
P
2 1
System
Boundary
Wb
Air V

90
 Property Relation: Ideal gas law, Pv = RT

Process: Constant pressure

Work Calculation: Neglecting the “other” work

The work per unit mass is

The work done on the air is 28.7 kJ/kg.

91
 Energy Conversion Efficiencies

 A measure of performance for a device is its

efficiency and is often given the symbol .
Efficiencies are expressed as follows:bo

92
 Heat Engine: A heat engine is a thermodynamic
system operating in a cycle to which net heat is
transferred and from which net work is delivered.
 The system, or working fluid, undergoes a series of
processes that constitute the heat engine cycle.
 The following figure illustrates a steam power plant
as a heat engine operating in a thermodynamic
cycle.

93
 Thermal Efficiency, th

The thermal efficiency is the index of performance of a

work-producing device or a heat engine and is defined
by the ratio of the net work output (the desired result)
to the heat input (the cost or required input to obtain
the desired result).

94
For a heat engine the desired result is the net work
done (Wout – Win) and the input is the heat supplied to
make the cycle operate Qin. The thermal efficiency is
always less than 1 or less than 100 percent.

where

Here, the use of the in and out subscripts means to use

the magnitude (take the positive value) of either the
work or heat transfer and let the minus sign in the net
expression take care of the direction.
95
Ex. 7 A steam power plant received 2000 kJ/kg of heat,
5 kJ/kg of pump work, and produced 505 kJ/kg of
turbine work. Determine the thermal efficiency for this
cycle.

We can write the thermal efficiency on a per unit mass

basis as:

96
 Combustion Efficiency

Consider the combustion of a fuel-air mixture as shown below.

Fuel CnHm Combustion CO2

Air Chamber H 2O
N2
Products
Reactants Qout = HV PP, TP
TR, PR
Fuels are usually composed of a compound or mixture containing
carbon, C, and hydrogen, H2. During a complete combustion process
all of the carbon is converted to carbon dioxide and all of the
hydrogen is converted to water. For stoichiometric combustion
(theoretically correct amount of air is supplied for complete
combustion) where both the reactants (fuel plus air) and the
products (compounds formed during the combustion process) have
the same temperatures, the heat transfer from the combustion
process is called the heating value of the fuel.
97
The lower heating value, LHV, is the heating value
when water appears as a gas in the products.

The lower heating value is often used as the

measure of energy per kg of fuel supplied to the
gas turbine engine because the exhaust gases have
such a high temperature that the water formed is
a vapor as it leaves the engine with other products
of combustion.

98
The higher heating value, HHV, is the heating value when water appears as a
liquid in the products.

The higher heating value is often used as the measure of energy per kg of fuel
supplied to the steam power cycle because there are heat transfer processes
within the cycle that absorb enough energy from the products of combustion that
some of the water vapor formed during combustion will condense.

Combustion efficiency is the ratio of the actual heat transfer from the combustion
process to the heating value of the fuel.

99
 Combustion Efficiency

Combustion efficiency is the ratio of the actual heat transfer from

the combustion process to the heating value of the fuel.

100
Energy and energy
transfer