CHAPTER FOUR

Research Design
Research Design/Research Methods

 “A research design is the

arrangement of conditions for
collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine
relevance to the research purpose
with economy in procedure.”
 Decisions regarding what, where,
when, how much, by what means
concerning an inquiry or a research
study constitute a research design.
The methods or procedures section is the
heart of the research proposal.
It is a plan that specifies the sources and
types of information relevant to the
research problem.
It is a strategy specifying which
approach will be used for gathering and
analyzing the data.
In brief, research design must, at
least, contain
(a) a clear statement of the
research problem;
 Cont……………….
(c) the population to be studied; and
(d) methods to be used in processing and
analyzing data
You must decide exactly how you are going to
achieve your stated objectives:
 Generally it is the blueprint for the collection,
measurement and analysis of data.
 Questions to be asked to prepare a research
design for a research proposal

 Where will the study be carried out?

 What do I want to measure?
 How can I measure it?
 What type of data is required?
 Where can the required data be found?
 What techniques of data collection will be used?
 What will be the sample design?
 What professional & non-professional staff do I need to
carry out this study?
 How will the data be analyzed?
 In what style will the report be prepared?
Cont’d……………….
 How can I avoid introducing biases into the
study?
 What constraints may affect this study?
 Components of research design
*may not necessarily be true for all types of
research

 Description of study area

Description of study design
Description of study participants
Determination of sample size
Description of selection process (sampling
method)
Methods of data collection
How data quality is ensured
Presentation of the data analysis methods
 One may split the overall research
design into the following parts:

(a) The sampling design which deals with

the method of selecting items to be
observed for the given study;
(b) The observational design which relates
to the conditions under which the
observations are to be made;
(c) The statistical design which
concerns with the question of how
many items are to be observed and
how the information and data
gathered are to be analyzed; and
(d) The operational design which
deals with the techniques by
which the procedures specified in
the sampling, statistical and
observational designs can be carried
out
 FORMS OF RESEARCH
DESIGNS

 Different research designs can be

conveniently described if we
categorize them as in case of
(1) Exploratory research studies;
(2) Descriptive and diagnostic research
studies, and
(3) Hypothesis-testing research studies.
1. Research design in case of
exploratory research studies:
 The major emphasis in such studies is
on the discovery of ideas and
insights.
 As such the research design
appropriate for such studies must be
flexible enough to provide
opportunity for considering different
aspects of a problem under study.
 2. Research design in case of
descriptive and diagnostic
research studies:
 The design in such studies must be
rigid and not flexible and must
focus attention on the following:
(a) Formulating the objective of the
study (what the study is about and
why is it being made?)
(b) Designing the methods of data
collection (what techniques of
gathering data will be adopted?)
(c) Selecting the sample (how much
material will be needed?)
(d) Collecting the data (where can the
required data be found and with what
time period should the data be
related?)
(e) Processing and analyzing the data.
(f) Reporting the findings.
3. Research design in case of
hypothesis-testing research
studies: Hypothesis-testing research
studies (generally known as
experimental studies) are those
where the researcher tests the
hypotheses of causal relationships
between variables.
 Such studies require procedures that
will not only reduce bias and increase
reliability, but will permit drawing
inferences about causality.
 FEATURES OF A GOOD
DESIGN
 A good design is often characterized
by adjectives like flexible,
appropriate, efficient, economical and
so on.
 Generally, the design which
minimizes bias and maximizes the
reliability of the data collected and
analyzed is considered a good design
Usually involves the consideration of the
following factors:
I. The means of obtaining information;
II. The availability and skills of the
researcher and his staff, if any;
III.The objective of the problem to be
studied;
IV.The nature of the problem to be
studied; and
V. The availability of time and money for
the research work.
Research Approach
Quantitative-numeric
analysis
Qualitative-narrative
Mixed (concurrent and
sequential)
 CHAPTER V

SAMPLE DESIGN
AND
PROCEDURE
 SAMPLING THEORY

Sampling theory is a study of relationships existing

between a population and samples drawn from the
population.

The theory of sampling is concerned with estimating

the properties of the population from those of the
sample and also with gauging the precision of the
estimate.
Sampling theory is designed to attain one or more of
the following objectives:
1. Statistical estimation: Estimating unknown
population parameters from a knowledge of
statistical measures based on sample studies.
2. Testing of hypotheses: Enable us to make
decision /to accept or reject hypothesis/
3. Statistical inference: Making generalization
about the population/ universe from the studies
based on samples drawn from it.
 Sampling
What is sampling?
Sampling is the process involving the selection of a finite number
of elements from a given population of interest, for purposes of
inquiry

 What is a sample: In research it is not always possible to

study an entire population.

A small fraction of the population from which

conclusions can be drawn about the whole population.
 A sample is a representative part of a population

 A sample should possess certain characteristics

 What are the characteristics a sample
should possess?
Should possess all the characteristics of the
population from which it is drawn, if possible, so
that it is fully representative of the population
The method of sample selection called sampling
procedure/process/ technique usually determines
its representative nature
Researchers are not interested in the sample itself,
but in what can be learned from the sample—and
how this information can be applied to the entire
population.
 Reason for sampling
There are two major reasons for sampling

 To get a general impression of the total

population of interest.
 In this case the selection of individuals to be
included in the sample can be quite
subjective.
 For obtaining estimates on certain characteristics
of the population.
 Here, the sampling process is undertaken through a
set of rigorous & objective procedures to avoid
subjective bias.
 Reasons for sampling rather than
census
Three reasons that make sampling more useful
than complete enumeration
 Time
 Cost and available resources
 Practicability

There are several scientific methods of

selection, some are more practical than the
others
SOME FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS

1. Universe/Population: The total of the items or units in

any field of inquiry, whereas the term ‘population’ refers
to the total of items about which information is desired.
2. Sampling frame: The elementary units or the group or
cluster of such units may form the basis of sampling
process in which case they are called as sampling units.
3. Sampling design: A plan for obtaining a sample from
the sampling frame.
The technique or the procedure the researcher would
adopt in selecting some sampling units from which
inferences about the population is drawn.
4. Statistic (s) and parameter(s): A statistic is a
characteristic of a sample, whereas a parameter is a
characteristic of a population.
5. Sampling error: Sample surveys do imply the study of a
small portion of the population and as such there would
naturally be a certain amount of inaccuracy in the
information collected.
6. Precision: precision is the range within which the
population average (or other parameter) will lie in
accordance with the reliability specified in the confidence
level as a percentage of the estimate or as a numerical
quantity.
 Sampling Procedure STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN

 While developing a sampling design, the researcher must pay attention to the
following points:
1. Type of universe: define the set of objects, technically called the Universe,
to be studied.
2. Sampling unit: Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state,
district, village, etc., or a construction unit such as house, flat, family, club,
school, etc.,
3. Source list: It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which sample is to be
drawn.
4. Size of sample: This refers to the number of items to be selected from the
universe to constitute a sample.
5. Parameters of interest: Consider the question of the specific population
parameters which are of interest. For instance, we may be interested in
estimating the proportion of persons .
6. Budgetary constraint: Cost considerations.
7. Sampling procedure: Decide on the type of sample that will be used i.e.,
he must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the items for the
sample.
 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

There are two basic/general types of sampling

techniques:
 Probability sampling
 Non-probability sampling

The nature of the study will determine which type of

sampling technique one should use.
 Large scale descriptive studies
 Intervention studies
 Qualitative studies
 Sampling Methods
30

Probability sampling
Non-probability sampling
1. SRS
1. Convenience
2. Systematic
2. Quota sampling
3. Stratified
3. Snowball sampling
4. Cluster
4. Purposive sampling
5. Multi stage
 Probability sampling

Sampling technique which employs random

procedure
Selection of sampling unit (individuals, groups of
people, objects, villages etc) is done on the basis of chance.

Every sampling unit has a known and non-zero

probability of selection into the sample.
This chance selection ensures that every member of
the population has equal chance of being included in
the sample.
Probability sampling is:

 more complex,
 more time-consuming and
 usually more costly than non-probability
sampling.
However, because study samples are randomly selected
and their probability of inclusion can be calculated,
 reliable estimates can be produced and
 inferences can be made about the population.
 Non probability sampling
NPS – refers to the selection of a sample that is not
based on known probability
Subjective judgment play a role in selecting the
sampling elements

NPS procedures are not valid for obtaining a

sample that is truly representative of a large
population
 Over select/under select some group of the population
 While selecting a SAMPLE, there are basic questions:
 What is the group of people (STUDY POPULATION) from
which we want to draw a sample?
 How many people do we need in our sample?
 How will these people be selected?
 Target population): the population of interest to whom
the researchers would like to make generalizations.

Study population: the actual group in which the

study is conducted .
 Study unit/Sample: A subset of a study population, about
which information is actually obtained : persons, housing
units, etc.
Generalizability is a two‐stage procedure:
we want to able to generalize from the sample to the study
population and
 then from the study population to the target population
Sampling Methods

Two broad divisions:

A. Probability sampling methods

B. Non-probability sampling methods

 A. Probability sampling
 Involves random selection of a sample
 Every sampling unit has a known and non-zero probability of
selection into the sample.
 Involves the selection of a sample from a population, based on chance.

Most common probability sampling methods

1. Simple random sampling
2. Systematic random sampling
3. Stratified random sampling
4. Cluster sampling
5. Multi-stage sampling
1. Simple random sampling
 The required number of individuals are selected at
random from the sampling frame, a list or a
database of all individuals in the population
 Each member of a population has an equal chance
of being included in the sample.
 To use a SRS method:
 Make a numbered list of all the units in the population
 Each unit should be numbered from 1 to N (where N is
the size of the population)
 Select the required number.
The randomness of the sample is ensured by:
 Use of “lottery’ methods
 Table of random numbers
 Computer programs

Random numbers
…. 8094 2525 8247 1347 7433 3620 1897 ….
…. 3563 2198 8211 9045 2618 2751 2627 ….
…. 1330 6331 3753 9693 8738 6815 1538 ….
…. 3565 0016 2243 6432 4796 6095 5283 ….
…. 7850 5925 5588 7311 2192 4545 3530 ….
…. 4490 5417 9727 6153 5901 4878 9980 ….
…. 6545 9104 9318 8819 7537 2785 9373 ….
 Example
• Suppose your college has 350 students and you need to conduct a short
survey on the quality of the food served in the cafeteria.
• You decide that a sample of 40 students should be sufficient for your
purposes.
• In the lottery method, the names of all 350 students be put in a drum,
thoroughly mixed and a sample of 40 taken out.

Advantages of simple random sampling:-

– No bias
– Small variability

• SRS has certain limitations:

– Requires a sampling frame.
– Difficult if the reference population is dispersed.
– Minority subgroups of interest may not be selected.
 2. Systematic random sampling
 Sometimes called interval sampling
 Selection of individuals from the sampling frame systematically rather
than randomly
 Individuals are taken at regular intervals down the list
 The starting point is chosen at random
Important if the reference population is arranged in some order:
 Order of registration of peasant association members

 Numerical number of house numbers

 Student’s registration books

 Taking individuals at fixed intervals (every kth) based on

the sampling fraction.
 Steps in systematic random sampling
1. Number the units on your frame from 1 to N (where N
is the total population size).
2. Determine the sampling interval (K) by dividing the
number of units in the population by the desired sample
size.
3. Select a number between one and K at random. This
number is called the random start and would be the first
number included in your sample.

4. Select every Kth unit after that first number

 Example

 To select a sample of 100 from a population of 400,

you would need a sampling interval of 400 ÷ 100 = 4.
 Therefore, K = 4.
 You will need to select one unit out of every four
units to end up with a total of 100 units in your
sample.
 Select a number between 1 and 4 from a table of
random numbers.
 If you choose 3, the third unit on your frame would be
the first unit included in your sample;
 The sample might consist of the following units to
make up a sample of 100: 3 (the random start), 7, 11,
15, 19...395, 399 (up to N, which is 400 in this case).

 Using the above example, you can see that with a systematic
sample approach there are only four possible samples that can
be selected, corresponding to the four possible random starts:
A. 1, 5, 9, 13...393, 397
B. 2, 6, 10, 14...394, 398
C. 3, 7, 11, 15...395, 399
D. 4, 8, 12, 16...396, 400
 Each member of the population belongs to only one of the
four samples and each sample has the same chance of being
selected.

 The main difference with SRS, any combination of 100

units would have a chance of making up the sample, while
with systematic sampling, there are only four possible
samples.
Systematic sampling
 Less time consuming easier to perform as compared to

SRS
 Systematic sampling should not be used when a cyclic

repetition is inherent in the sampling frame.

 3. Stratified random sampling

 It is done when the population is known to be have

heterogeneity with regard to some factors and those
factors are used for stratification

 Using stratified sampling, the population is divided into

homogeneous, mutually exclusive groups called strata,
and

 A population can be stratified by any variable that is

available for all units prior to sampling (e.g., age, sex,
province of residence, income, etc.).
 Among strata there is heterogeneity and within each
strata units are homogeneous
 A separate sample is taken independently from each
stratum.
 Any of the sampling methods mentioned in this
section (and others that exist) can be used to sample
within each stratum.
 A population can be stratified by any variable that is
available for all units on the sampling frame prior to
sampling (e.g., age, sex, province of residence,
income, etc.).
 Why do we need to create strata?
 It can make the sampling strategy more efficient.
 A larger sample is required to get a more accurate
estimation if a characteristic varies greatly from one unit
to the other.
 For example, if every person in a population had the same
salary, then a sample of one individual would be enough to
get a precise estimate of the average salary.
 Stratified sampling ensures an adequate sample size for
sub-groups in the population of interest.
 When a population is stratified, each stratum becomes an
independent population and you will need to decide the
sample size for each stratum.
 Equal allocation:
 Allocate equal sample size to each stratum
 Proportionate allocation:
n
nj  Nj
N
 nj is sample size of the jth stratum
 Nj is population size of the jth stratum
 n = n1 + n2 + ...+ nk is the total sample size
 N = N1 + N2 + ...+ Nk is the total population size

Village A B C Total
HHs 100 250 150 500
S. size ? ? ? 60
4. Cluster sampling
 Sometimes it is too expensive to carry out SRS
 Population may be large and scattered.
 Complete list of the study population unavailable
 Travel costs can become expensive if interviewers have to
survey people from one end of the country to the other.
 Cluster sampling is the most widely used to reduce
the cost
 The clusters should be homogeneous, unlike
stratified sampling where the strata are heterogeneous
 Steps in cluster sampling
 Cluster sampling divides the population into groups
or clusters.
 A number of clusters are selected randomly to
represent the total population, and then all units
within selected clusters are included in the sample.
 No units from non-selected clusters are included in
the sample—they are represented by those from
selected clusters.
 This differs from stratified sampling, where some
units are selected from each group.
Example
In a school based study, we assume students of the same school are
homogeneous.
We can select randomly sections and include all students of the
selected sections only
 Advantages
• Cost reduction
• It creates 'pockets' of sampled units instead of spreading the sample over
the whole territory.
• Sometimes a list of all units in the population is not available, while a list
of all clusters is either available or easy to create.
Disadvantages
• Creates a loss of efficiency when compared with SRS.
• It is usually better to survey a large number of small clusters instead of a
small number of large clusters.
– This is because neighboring units tend to be more alike, resulting in a sample that
does not represent the whole spectrum of opinions or situations present in the overall
population.
• Another drawback to cluster sampling is that you do not have
total control over the final sample size.
• Since not all schools have the same number of (say Grade 11) students and city blocks
do not all have the same number of households, and you must interview every student
or household in your sample, as an example, the final size may be larger or smaller than
you expected.
5. Multi-stage sampling
 Similar to the cluster sampling, except that it
involves picking a sample from within each chosen
cluster, rather than including all units in the cluster.
 This type of sampling requires at least two stages.
 The primary sampling unit (PSU) is the sampling
unit in the first sampling stage.

 The secondary sampling unit (SSU) is the

sampling unit in the second sampling stage, etc.
 Woreda PSU

Kebele SSU

Sub-Kebele TSU

HH
 In the first stage, large groups or clusters are identified and selected. These
clusters contain more population units than are needed for the final sample.

 In the second stage, population units are picked from within the selected
clusters (using any of the possible probability sampling methods) for a final
sample.

 If more than two stages are used, the process of choosing population units
within clusters continues until there is a final sample.

 With multi-stage sampling, you still have the benefit of a more concentrated
sample for cost reduction.

 However, the sample is not as concentrated as other clusters and the sample
size is still bigger than for a simple random sample size.
Also, you do not need to have a list of all of the units in
the population. All you need is a list of clusters and list
of the units in the selected clusters.

Admittedly, more information is needed in this type of

sample than what is required in cluster sampling.

However, multi-stage sampling still saves a great

amount of time and effort by not having to create a list
of all the units in a population.
 B. Non-probability sampling

 In non-probability sampling, every item has an unknown chance of

being selected.
 In non-probability sampling, there is an assumption that there is an
even distribution of a characteristic of interest within the
population.
 For probability sampling, random is a feature of the selection
process.
 This is what makes the researcher believe that any sample would be
representative and because of that, results will be accurate.

 For probability sampling, random is a feature of the selection

process, rather than an assumption about the structure of the
population.
In non-probability sampling, since elements are chosen arbitrarily, there is no
way to estimate the probability of any one element being included in the sample.
Also, no assurance is given that each item has a chance of being included, making
it impossible either to estimate sampling variability or to identify possible bias
 Reliability cannot be measured in non-probability sampling; the only way
to address data quality is to compare some of the survey results with
available information about the population.

 Still, there is no assurance that the estimates will meet an acceptable level
of error.

 Researchers are reluctant to use these methods because there is no way to

measure the precision of the resulting sample.
 Despite these drawbacks, non-probability sampling methods can be useful when
descriptive comments about the sample itself are desired.

 Secondly, they are quick, inexpensive and convenient.

 There are also other circumstances, such as researches, when it is unfeasible or

impractical to conduct probability sampling.

The most common types of non-probability sampling

1. Convenience or haphazard sampling
2. Volunteer sampling
3. Judgment sampling
4. Quota sampling
5. Snowball sampling technique
1. Convenience or haphazard sampling

 Convenience sampling is sometimes referred to as haphazard or

accidental sampling.

 It is not normally representative of the target population because

sample units are only selected if they can be accessed easily and
conveniently.
 The obvious advantage is that the method is easy to use,
but that advantage is greatly offset by the presence of bias.

 Although useful applications of the technique are limited,

it can deliver accurate results when the population is
homogeneous.
For example, a scientist could use this method to
determine whether a lake is polluted or not.

Assuming that the lake water is well-mixed, any

sample would yield similar information.

A scientist could safely draw water anywhere on

the lake without bothering about whether or not
the sample is representative
 2. Volunteer sampling
 As the term implies, this type of sampling occurs when
people volunteer to be involved in the study.
 In psychological experiments or pharmaceutical trials
(drug testing), for example, it would be difficult and
unethical to enlist random participants from the general
public.
 In these instances, the sample is taken from a group of
volunteers.
 Sometimes, the researcher offers payment to attract
respondents.
 In exchange, the volunteers accept the possibility of a
lengthy, demanding or sometimes unpleasant process
 Sampling voluntary participants as opposed to
the general population may introduce strong
biases.

 Often in opinion polling, only the people who

care strongly enough about the subject tend to
respond.

 The silent majority does not typically respond,

resulting in large selection bias.
 3. Judgment sampling

 This approach is used when a sample is taken based on certain

judgments about the overall population.
 The underlying assumption is that the investigator will select
units that are characteristic of the population.
 The critical issue here is objectivity: how much can judgment be
relied upon to arrive at a typical sample?
 Judgment sampling is subject to the researcher's biases and is
perhaps even more biased than haphazard sampling.

 Since any preconceptions the researcher may have reflected in the

sample, large biases can be introduced if these preconceptions are
inaccurate.
 Researchers often use this method in exploratory
studies like pre-testing of questionnaires and focus
groups.

 They also prefer to use this method in laboratory

settings where the choice of experimental subjects
(i.e., animal, human) reflects the investigator's pre-
existing beliefs about the population.
4. Quota sampling
 This is one of the most common forms of non-
probability sampling.

 Sampling is done until a specific number of units

(quotas) for various sub-populations have been
selected.

 Since there are no rules as to how these quotas are to be

filled, quota sampling is really a means for satisfying
sample size objectives for certain sub-populations.
 As with all other non-probability sampling
methods, in order to make inferences about the
population, it is necessary to assume that persons
selected are similar to those not selected.
 Such strong assumptions are rarely valid.

 The main argument against quota sampling is

that it does not meet the basic requirement of

randomness.
 Some units may have no chance of selection or

the chance of selection may be unknown.

 Therefore, the sample may be biased.
 Quota sampling is generally less expensive than
random sampling.
 It is also easy to administer, especially considering the
tasks of listing the whole population, randomly
selecting the sample and following-up on non-
respondents can be omitted from the procedure.
 Quota sampling is an effective sampling method when
information is urgently required
 In many cases where the population has no suitable
frame, quota sampling may be the only appropriate
sampling method.
5. Snowball sampling
 A technique for selecting a research sample where existing
study subjects recruit future subjects from among their
acquaintances.
 Thus the sample group appears to grow like a rolling snowball.
 This sampling technique is often used in hidden
populations which are difficult for researchers to access;
example populations would be drug users or commercial
sex workers.
 Because sample members are not selected from a

sampling frame, snowball samples are subject to

numerous biases.
 Sample size determination
 The size of the sample is one of the most important
determinants of the accuracy of survey estimates.
 Samples size is estimated using formulae
 The selection of a formula depends on
sampling strategies (cluster Vs simple random sampling)
population size
the type of variable being studied
Study and design type (experimental vs non-experimental )
type of statistical comparison planned.
 Basic questions that should be asked
when choosing a sample
 How large a sample can you collect?
 The larger the sample the smaller the chance that the
sample will be different from the population it should
represent.
 What is the prevalence of the condition you are
studying?
 If one is studying a condition that appears quite often in a
population, better to take a smaller sample than if the condition is
rare.

 What level of budget do you have for the study?

 Research costs increase with sample size
 Cont……………….

 What staff are available to gather the sample?

 Limited human resources may be a constraint on sample size.

 How much time do you have for the research?

 You can only study a limited number of people in a certain time.

 Into how many cells or categories are you going to

divide your data for analytical purposes?
 The more categories planned for analysis, the larger the
sample must be.
 Much larger than
Waste resource
the optimum

Sample size Decreases

precision of the
estimate
Much smaller
than the optimum Narrows the
range of
conclusions and
generalizations
Sample Size Criteria
In addition to the purpose of the study and
population size, three criteria usually will need to
be specified to determine the appropriate sample
size:
 The level of precision,
 The level of confidence or risk,
 The degree of variability in the attributes being
measured
The Level of Precision
 The level of precision, sometimes called sampling error, is the

range in which the true value of the population is estimated to

be. This range is often expressed in percentage points (e.g., ±5
percent)
The Confidence Level
 The confidence or risk level is based on ideas encompassed

under the Central Limit Theorem. The key idea encompassed

in the Central Limit Theorem is that when a population is
repeatedly sampled, the average value of the attribute obtained
by those samples is equal to the true population value.
Degree of Variability
 The third criterion, the degree of variability in the

attributes being measured, refers to the distribution

of attributes in the population. The more
heterogeneous a population, the larger the sample
size required to obtain a given level of precision.
The less variable (more homogeneous) a
population, the smaller the sample size.
Strategies for Determining Sample Size

 There are several approaches to determining the

sample size. These include;
 Using a census for small populations,

 Imitating a sample size of similar studies,

 Using published tables, and

 Applying formulas to calculate a sample size.

Using a Census for Small Populations
 One approach is to use the entire population as the

sample. Although cost considerations make this

impossible for large populations, a census is attractive for
small populations (e.g., 200 or less). A census eliminates
sampling error and provides data on all the individuals in
the population.
Using a Sample Size of a Similar Study
 Another approach is to use the same sample size as those

of studies similar to the one you plan. Without reviewing

the procedures employed in these studies you may run the
risk of repeating errors that were made in determining the
sample size for another study. However, a review of the
literature in your discipline can provide guidance about
“typical” sample sizes that are used.
Using Published Tables
 A third way to determine sample size is to rely on

published tables, which provide the sample size for

a given set of criteria.
 The Table below present sample sizes that would

be necessary for given combinations of precision,

confidence levels, and variability.
Using Formulas to Calculate a Sample Size
 Although tables can provide a useful guide for

determining the sample size, you may need to

calculate the necessary sample size for a different
combination of levels of precision, confidence, and
variability. The fourth approach to determining
sample size is the application of one of several
formulas
 For large population we can compute the sample

size:
 Formula For Calcul ating A Sample For
Proportions
 For populations that are large, Cochran (1963:75)
developed the Equation 1 to yield a representative
sample for proportions.
Finite Population Correct ion For
 Proportions

 If the population is small then the sample size can

be reduced slightly. This is because a given sample

size provides proportionately more information for
a small population than for a large population. The
sample size (n0)
A Simplified Formula For Proportions
 Yamane (1967:886) provides a simplified formula

to calculate sample sizes.

 A 95% confidence level and P = .5 are assumed.
END