UNIT TWO

PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN

Introduction

 The region of Ethiopia and the Horn referred to as the cradle of

humankind.
 It is also a region where early civilizations including food production,
making tools and religious practices were initiated.
 These developments contributed to the social evolutions, economic
formations, and socio-cultural and political settings.
 HUMAN EVOLUTION

 Archeological evidences suggest that East African Rift Valley is the

cradle of humanity.
 both biological and cultural evolution have been discovered in the Lower
Omo and Middle Awash River valleys both by Ethiopian and foreign
scholars. Examples of archaeological discoveries

1. A fossil named Chororapithecus which dated 10 million B. P. was

unearthed in Anchar in West Hararghe in 2007.

2. Ardipithicus Ramidus Kadabba which dated 5.8 -5.2 million years B.P.
was discovered in Middle Awash.

3. Ardipithicus Ramidus dated 4. 2 million B.P. was discovered at Aramis in

Afar in 1994.
 Other Australopithecines were uncovered at Belohdelie which dated back
3.6 million years B. P. in Middle Awash
 Australopithecus afarensis, Selam, dated to 3.3 million years B.P was
also discovered at Dikika, Mille, Afar in 2000.
 Another Australopithecus afarnesis (Lucy/Dinkinesh, dated c. 3.18
million years B. P.) with 40% complete body parts, weight 30kg, height
1.07 was discovered at Hadar in Afar in 1974
 Fossil named Australopithecus anamensis was discovered around Lake
Turkana.
 An eco-fact named as Australopithecus garhi (means surprise in Afar
language) dated to 2.5 million years B.P was discovered at Bouri, Middle
Awash, between 1996 and 1999.
•The development of the human brain was the main feature of the next
stage of human evolution, which produced the genus Homo.

lists of genus Homo includes

1. Homo Habilis:- The name is derived from Latin terms "Homo“

which means human being and "Habilis" (skillful),

 Also known as Handy human being

 has been found in the Lower Omo.

 Which dated 1.9 million years B. P.

 2. Homo erectus

 It’s fossil discovered at Melka Kunture, Konso Gardula and

Gadeb

 Which dated 1. 6 million years B. P.

 has 900-1100 cc brain size.

 invented fire and walking upright

 started burial practice.

 Homo erectus seems to have originated in Africa and then spread out
to the rest of the world.

 The fossil of homo erectus found and dispersed in different area out
 3. Homo Sapiens

 knowledgeable human being

 Which dated 400, 000 years B.P.

 Has 1300-1400cc brain size and discovered in Middle Awash

4. Homo sapiens sapiens

 discovered at Porc Epic near Dire Dawa, and Kibish around Lower
Omo in 1967.

 Which dated 100, 000-195,000 years B.P which is the oldest of the
world for Modern Homo sapiens.
 Homo sapiens idaltu, found in Middle Awash in 1997, lived about
160,000 years B.P.

 Cultural evolution is highly related to technological changes that

brought socio-economic transformation on human life.

 It can be conventionally grouped in to Stone Age, Bronze Age and

Iron Age.

 Stone tools had been the first technologies to be developed by human

beings.

 Based on its features, ways and period of production, stone tools can
be grouped in to three these are:-
1. Mode I (Olduwan),
2. Mode II, (Acheulean),
3. Mode III (Sangoon).
 The Mode I stone tools are mainly characterized by crude and mono-
facial styles, and were produced by the direct percussion.
 Mode II stone tools were produced by indirect percussion, by using
hand-ax or hammer, and mainly characterized by bifacial, pointed
and convex features.
 Mode III stone tools are characterized by flexible and fine form of
production by the use of obsidian.
 The Olduwan tools made and used by Homo habilis were discovered
near Gona in 1992 and at Shungura in Afar.
 It dated 2.52 million years B.P.
 Acheulean tools were produced by Homo erectus which dated back
to 1.7.million years B.P,
 Acheulian tools were found at Kella, Middle Awash in 1963.

 Homo sapiens produced Sangoon tools that trace back up to 300,000

years B. P.
 Based on period of usage stone tools is divided into three sub-
periods.

1. the Paleolithic period

 also known as Old Stone Age,

 dated from 3.4 million to 11, 000 years B. P.

 It was a period when human being sheltered in caves, developed

language, and used stone , bone, wood, furs, and skin materials to
prepare food and clothing.

 It was a period in which sex-age labor division maintained as such

able-bodied males as hunters of fauna, and children and females as
gatherers of flora.
2. Mesolithic period

 It is also known as Middle Stone Age

 Dated from 11, 000-10,000 B. P.)

 It was transition period between Paleolithic and Neolithic (New Stone

Age

3. Neolithic period

 It was a period human beings transformed from mobile to sedentary

way of life.

 from hunting and gathering to the domestication of plants and

animals.
• The process of domestication took place independently in the various
parts of the world.
• In Ethiopia and the Horn people chiefly cultivated plants like Teff
(Eragrotis teff), dagussa (Eleusine coracana), nug (Guzotia
abyssinica), enset (Ensete ventricosum) etc. and are indigenous to the
area.
• Beside Neolithic material culture discovered in Tigray, Aqordat and
Barentu
• The Gobodara rock shelter near Aksum has provided us agricultural
stone tools.
• Remains associated with domesticated cattle, chickpeas and
vegetables have been excavated from Lalibela Cave on the
southeastern shore of Lake Tana.
• Stone tools used for cutting grass and grass like plants as well as rock
paintings of domesticated animals have been found at Laga Oda rock
shelter near Charchar.

THE PEOPLING OF THE REGION

LANGUAGES AND LINGUISTIC PROCESSES
• Ethiopia and the Horn in general is marked by ethnic and linguistic
diversity.
• There are about 90 languages with 200 dialects in Ethiopia and the
Horn.
• Linguists classify languages of Ethiopia and the Horn into two major
language super families. These are Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan.
A. Afro-Asiatic: super family is sub-divided into the following families:

1. Cushitic: this language family is divided into four branches:

 Northern: is represented by Beja, spoken in northwestern Eritrea

bordering the Sudan.
 Central: Agaw includes Awign, Kunfel, Qimant; Hamtanga and Bilen.
 Eastern: this includes diversified linguistic groups like Afar, Ale,
Arbore, Baiso, Burji, Darashe, Dasanech, Gedeo, Hadiya, Halaba,
Kambata, Konso, Libido, Mosiye, Oromo, Saho, Sidama, Somali,
Tambaro, Tsemai, etc.
 Southern: represented by Dhalo in Kenya and Nbugua in Tanzania.
2. Semitic is divided into two:-

1. North: Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken around Eritrea-Sudanese border);

Tigre (spoken in Eritrean Lowland); Tigrigna (spoken in highland
Eritrea and Tigray).
2. South: is further divided into two

 Transverse: Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane and Zay.

 Outer: Gafat (extinct), Gurage and Mesmes (endangered).

3. Omotic: includes Anfillo, Ari, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Boro-
Shinasha, Chara, Dawuro, Dime, Dizi, Gamo, Gofa, Hamer, Karo,
Keficho, Konta, Korete, Male, Melo, Oyda, Sezo, Shekkacho, Sheko,
Wolayta, Yem, Zayse etc.

B. Nilo-Saharan: Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kacipo-Balesi, Komo,

Kunama, Kwama, Kwegu, Majang, Mi'en, Murle, Mursi, Nara, Nu’er,
Nyangatom, Opo, Shabo, Suri and Uduk.
 Language classification did not remain static. population movements,
warfare, trade, religious and territorial expansion, urbanization etc.
affected the language of certain group

 In this process, some languages died out or have been in danger of

extinction while others thrived over time.
 2.3.2. SETTLEMENT PATTERNS
 In some areas, settlement was dense and in other areas
sparse.
 environmental, socio-economic, and political processes
significantly shaped and reshaped the spatial distribution of
peoples in the region.
 A. Cushitic and Semitic Peoples’ Settlement patterns

 the Cushites have evolved to be the largest linguistic group in

Ethiopia and the Horn and have also spread over wide areas from
Sudan to Tanzania.
 Similarly, the Semitic peoples spread over large area and eventually
settled the northern, north central, northeastern, south central and
eastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn.
 The Semites are the second majority people next to the Cushites.
 B. Omotic Peoples’ Settlement Patterns

 the majority of Omotic peoples have inhabited southwestern Ethiopia

along the Omo River basin.
 Yet, in the earlier times, they had extended much further to the north.

C. The Nilotes Settlement Patterns

 the Nilotes are largely settled along the Ethiopia-Sudanese border
although some of the Chari-Nile family inhabited as far as southern
Omo.
 The latter are identified as the Karamojo cluster living around Turkana
Lake along Ethio-Kenyan border.
 2.3.3. Economic Formations

 The domestication of plants and animals gave humanity two

interdependent modes of life: agriculture and pastoralism.
 Likewise, in Ethiopia and the Horn, these two forms of livelihood
have coexisted and quite often intermingled.
 Topographic features and climatic conditions largely influenced
economic activities in Ethiopia and the Horn.
 People inhibiting eastern lowland region has characterized pastoral
economy since early periods.
 Involved in herding of camel, goat, and cattle has been the most
common economic practice among the Afar, Saho and Somali as well
as Karayu and Borana Oromo.
 Majority of the populations inhibiting in the plateau were engaged in
mixed farming.
 Here sedentary agriculture had been started and advanced at least
since 10, 000 years B. P. by the Cushites, Semites and Omotic groups.
•The major economic activity of the Omotic has been mixed farming and
trade in northern Omo while southern Omo have predominantly
practiced pastoralism and fishing.

•Many of the Omotic groups have also been famous in metallurgy,

weaving and other crafts.
 Religion and Religious Processes

2.4.1. Indigenous Religion

 Since the earlier time people in Ethiopia and the horn have been
practicing indigenous/traditional religion.
 A distinctive mark of indigenous religion is belief in Supreme Being,
but special powers are attributed to natural phenomena, which are
considered sacred.
 Indigenous religion of the Oromo-

 the Oromo believe on the existence of one Supreme Being called

Waqa.
 Waqa's power is manifested through the spirits called Ayyana.
 The major spirits include:-
 Abdar/Dache (soil fertility spirit),
 Atete (women or human and animal fertility spirit),
 Awayi/Tiyyana (sanctity spirit),
 Balas (victory spirit),
 In the autumn and spring seasons every year at the edge of ever-
flowing river and top of mountain respectively, there is thanks giving
festival called Irrecha besides New Year (Birbo) rite.
 Cont’d
 Chato/Dora (wild animals defender),
 Gijare/ Nabi (father and mother’s sprit),
 Jaricha (peace spirit),
 Qasa (anti-disease spirit) etc.
 There is also a belief that the dead exist in the form of a ghost called
Ekera in the surrounding of his/her abode after death, or his/her
cemetery (Hujuba).
 Cont’d
 Revered experts known as Qallu (male) and Qallitti (female) have
maintained link between the Ayyana and the believers.
 Qallu's ritual house called galma is located on hilltop or in the
groves of large trees.
 On Wednesday and Friday nights, there is Dalaga/ecstasy at which
Qallu or Qallitti is possessed by Ayyana so that s/he can interpret
mysteries.
 The Jila/Makkala (delegated messengers) used to make pilgrimage
to get consecration of senior Qallu (Abba Muda or anointment
 Cont’d
 Abba Muda had turban surrirufa of tri-colors: black at top, red at center and
white at bottom representing those in pre-active life, active (Luba) and
those in post-active life respectively.

2. Hadiya

 Among the Hadiya the Supreme Being is known as Waa, who is believed to
exist before everything (hundam issancho) or create world (qoccancho) and
whose eyes are represented by elincho (sun) and agana (moon).

 Spirits like Jara (male’s protector), Idota (female’s guard), Hausula, Qedane
and Warriqa attracted prayers and sacrifices at Shonkolla and Kallalamo
mountains chosen by Anjancho and Jaramanjcho.
 3. Kambata

 The Kambata have Negita or Aricho Magano/Sky God and

religious officials known as Magnancho.
 The Gedeo called the Supreme Being, Mageno and had thanks giving
ceremony called Deraro.The Konso religion is centered on worship
of Waaq/Wakh.
 The Gojjam Agaw used to call the Supreme Being Diban (Sky God).
 Among sections of the Gurage, there have been Waq/Goita (Supreme
Being), Bozha (thunder deity) and Damwamwit (health goddess).
 Cont’d

 Yem worshipped Ha’o (Sky God). So’ala clan was considered as the
top in religious duties as it was in charge of Shashokam (the most
vital deity).
 Religious functions were performed through couriers in each village
called Magos. The Konta’s spirit-cult was called Docho.
 4. Wolayita
 The Wolayta called God Tosa and spirit Ayyana including Tawa-Awa
/Moytiliya (father’s spirit), Sawuna (justice spirit), Wombo (rain spirit),
Micho (goat spirit), Nago (sheep spirit), Kuchuruwa (emergency spirit),
Gomashera (war spirit), Talahiya (Beta Talaye or talheya, Omo spirit) etc.

 Annual worship ofspirits was performed at a sacred place called Mitta

usually at the end of May and beginning of June to offer sacrifice of the first
fruits called Teramo or Pageta (Dubusha).

 People gathered around tree called Dongowa, which varied from clan to
clan: sycamore (Ficus sur exasperate) for the Bubula, podocarpo for Zatuwa
etc.
 Cont’d

 The Qesiga called their meeting place Kasha (Dabre).

 To protect people from eating crop before harvesting Zomboro clan

used Diqaysa practice by planting in their fields sour olive and nubica
trees.
 The Wolayta also had the practice of Chaganna (prohibited days to
work) to protect produce from disaster.
 They also chose and kept dark brown heifer called Beka (Beqabe) or
Baqa Potilliya (Literally, ritual cattle) as birthday fate.
 Cont’d
 If they made error in respecting this custom, they would anoint their
bodies with a leaf called Aydameta (ground red pepper) as
repentance.
 Religious practitioners known as Sharechuwa had Becha or Kera
Eza Keta (ritual house).
5. Keficho
 The Keficho called Supreme Being as Yero; spirit as Eqo and
a person who hosts Eqo is known as Alamo or eke-nayo.
 Father of all spirits is dochi or dehe-tateno and its host is called
dochi-nayo or Ibedechino/Ibede-gudeno (including Arito and
Wudia Riti), with residence at Adio. Harvest spirit is called
Kollo and sacrifice to it is dejo.
 Cont’d

 Earth and area spirits are known as Showe-kollo and Dude-baro

respectively.
 There are also local spirits like damochechi of Channa, yaferochi of
Sharada and wogidochi of Adio as well as gepetato or king of hill
identified by Yetecho clan as landowner. Members of the Dugo clan
led spiritual services.
 The Boro-Shinasha people believe in super natural power called Iqa,
which created everything and presides over the universe.
 Cont’d

 The indigenous religion elements prescribe praying for the

prevention of drought, flooding, erosion, disease and
starvation within the community and their surrounding
environment.
 Among various prayer rituals, the first is Gure Shuka for
preservation of their locality through slaughtering animals by
calling the name of God being at the tip of the mountains. The
second is Shode De’na, praying and slaughtering when
unexpected disease happens.
 Cont’d
 The third is Marrowa Shuka; slaughtering for children to
grow without disease and to prevent children from evil spirits
attack; for rehabilitation of wealth; to promote harmonious
way of life and productivities in the family.
6. The Nuer
 The Nuer believe in Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven), but believe
in the coming of God through rain, lightning and thunder, and
rainbow is necklace of God.
 Sun and moon as well as other entities are also manifestation
or sign of God.
 Cont’d
 There are also spirits associated with clanspears names such as WiW
(spirit of war) associated with thunder.
 The Nuer believe that when a person dies, flesh is committed to earth
while breath or life goes back to Kuoth and soul that signifies human
personality remains alive as a shadow or a reflection, and departs
together with ox sacrificed to place of ghosts.
 An interesting feature of indigenous religion is the way its practices
and beliefs are fused with Christianity and Islam. This phenomenon
of mixing of religions is known as syncretism.
 2.4.2. Judaism

 Sources indicate that Judaism has been followed in Ethiopia and the
Horn by peoples before Christianity reached the region.
 The Bete-Israel practiced Haymanot (religious practices, which are
generally recognized as Israelite religion that differs from Rabbinic
Judaism).
 Cont’d
 Many of the Bete-Israel accounts trace their religion from the very
ancient migration of some portion of the Tribe of Dan to Ethiopia,
led it is said by sons of Moses, perhaps even at the time of the Exodus
(1400-1200 B.C.).
 Following the crises in Judea, i.e., split of the northern Kingdom of
Israel from the southern Kingdom of Judah after the death of King
Solomon or Babylonian Exile.
 Other Bete-Israel take as their basis the account of return to Ethiopia
of Menilek I, who is believed to be the son of King Solomon (r. 974-
932 B.C.) of ancient Israel and Makeda, ancient Queen of Saba
(Sheba), and considered to be the first Solomonic Emperor of
Ethiopia.
 Cont’d

 There are also other stories that attribute the presence of the Bete-
Isreal in Ethiopia to an intermarriage between Jewsh immigrants with
native Agaws.
 On the other hand, scholars such as Tadese Tamirat and Kay Shelmay
argue that the Bete-Israel are remnants of old testament followers of
orthodox Christianity rather than Jews who migrated from abroad.
 Whatever the case, The Jews developed and lived for centuries in
northern and northwestern Ethiopia.
 2.4.3. Christianity

 Christianity became state religion in 334 A.D. during the reign of

King Ezana (r. 320-360), who dropped pre-Christian gods like Ares
(Hariman/Maharram/war god), Arwe (serpentpython god), Bahir
(sea god) and Midir (earth god), and embraced Christianity.
 Instrumental in conversion of the king were Syrian brothers, Aedesius
and Frumentius (Fremnatos). When Fremnatos (Kasate Birhane or
Abba Salama) visited Alexandria, Patriarch Atnatewos (328-373)
appointed him as the first Bishop of Ethiopian Orthodox Church
(EOC).
 Cont’d
 Consecration of bishops from Coptic Church in Egypt continued until
1959, when Abune Baslios became the first Ethiopian Patriarch.
 Christianity was further expanded to the mass of the society in the
fifth century, during the reign of Ella Amida II (478-86) by the nine
saints
 The Nine Saints introduced a monastic life into Ethiopia
 They had built many churches and monasteries
 The saints also translated the Bible and other religious books into
Geez.
 Christianity During the Zagwe Dynasty
 The expansion of Christianity continued in Zagwe period (1150-1270)
and chiefly gained fresh momentum during the early Medieval Period
(1270-1527), when many churches and monasteries were constructed.
 Among Rock-hewn churches of Lalibela, Debra-Bizan of Hamasen in
Eritrea; Debra-Hayiq in Wollo, Debre-Dima and Debre-Werq in
Gojjam; Debra-Libanos in Shewa, Birbir Mariam in Gamo and
Debre-Asabot on the way to Harar.
 These churches and monasteries are not merely religious centers, but
served as repositories of ancient manuscripts and precious objects of
art.
 The Catholic Interlude

 From mid-sixteenth to the early seventeenth centuries, the

Jesuit missionaries tried to convert Monophysite EOC to
Dyophysite Catholic.
 this led to bloody conflicts that in turn led to expulsion of
the Jesuits.
 However, the Jesuits intervention triggered religious
controversies within the EOC that is discussed in
subsequent units.
 Various Contributions of Missionaries

 They translated spiritual books into vernaculars.

 They adopted old names for Supreme Being like Waqayyo, Tosa etc and
used them in new versions as equivalent to God.
 Village schools were established as centers of preaching the faith.
 These schools were open to all children of chiefs and farmers.
 They also provided medical facilities.
 All these attracted a large number of followers.
 Eventually, continuous and systematic indoctrinations seem to have
resulted in grafting of new teaching on indigenous religion.
 2.4.4. Islam

• Middle East is commonly referred to as the cradle of ancient

civilization.
• It is the birth place of ancient religions such as Christianity and
Islam.
• When Prophet Mohammed had preached Islam in Mecca since 610
AD, he faced opposition from the Quraysh rulers.
• Under this circumstance, the Prophet sent some of his early followers
to Aksum including his daughter Rukiya and her husband Uthman
as well as the Prophet's future wives Umm Habiba and Umm Salma
 Cont’d
 The first group of refugees was led by Jafar Abu Talib.

 In his advice to his followers, the Prophet said of Ethiopia, "…a king
under whom none are persecuted.
 It is a land of righteousness, where God will give relief from what
you are suffering."
 The then Aksumite king, Armah Ella Seham (Ashama b. Abjar or
Ahmed al-Nejash in Arabic sources), gave them asylum from 615-28.
 Cont’d
 Leaders of the Quraysh asked Armah to repatriate the refugees, but
the king did not comply.
 Armah is said to have replied, "If you were to offer me a mountain
of gold I would not give up these people who have taken refugees
with me”.
Class Discussion
1. Unlike other parts of the World, ancient Ethiopia (Abyssinia) had
exempted from forceful Islamization and Arabaization processes.
Expound briefly possible factors accounted for Ethiopia’s exemption
 How did Islam penetrate into Ethiopia and the Horn
of Africa?
 Islam spread to the Horn of Africa largely through peaceful ways
including trade.
 Islam was well established in Dahlak Islands on the Red Sea by the
beginning of the 8th century. In the early 10th century, the Muslim
community on the islands developed a sultanate.
 In due course, Muslims began to settled other places on the Red Sea
coast.
 It was from these coastal areas that Islam gradually spread among the
predominantly pastoral communities of the interior, largely through
the agency of preachers and merchants.
 Class Activity

Classroom Discussion
 Unlike northern part of Ethiopia, Islam made a rapid and successful
expansion (penetration) into Southeast and eastern part of Ethiopia.

 What factor hindered Islam to made penetration into the interior part
of northern Ethiopia? What fertile conditions facilitated (encouraged)
Islam to easily penetrate into Southeast and Eastern part of the
Ethiopian Empire?
 Important Gateways (Doors) of Islam

1. Dahlak
 Dahlak route played a minor role in the introduction of Islam into the
interior b/c Christianity was strongly entrenched as a state religion in
Aksum and later states of northern Ethiopia and open proselytization
of Islam was prohibited.
2. Zeila
 The port of Zeila on western coast of the Gulf of Aden served as an
important gateway for the introduction of Islam mainly into the
present day Shewa, Wollo and Hararghe.
 Cont’d
 Islam firmly established itself in the coastal areas by the eighth and ninth
centuries.
 From there, it radiated to central, southern, and eastern Ethiopia
through the role of Muslim clerics who followed in the footsteps of
traders.
 In this regard, it should be noted that Sheikh Hussein of Bale, a Muslim
saint (Waliy) of medieval period, played very important role in the
expansion of Islam into Bale, Arsi and other southeastern parts of
Ethiopia and the Horn.
 Another Islamic center in this region is Sof Umar cave.
 Expansion of Islam into the South East Region

 Islam was introduced into Somali territories in the 8th c A. D.

through Benadir coasts of Moqadishu, Brava and Merca.
 Abu Bakr Ibn Fukura al Din Sahil set up Moqadishu Minirate
c.1269.
 The mosques, Islamic learning and pilgrimage centers have been
the depositories of cultures, traditions and literature of local
Muslims.
 Unit Three: Politics, Economy and Society in
Ethiopia and the Horn to the end of the 13th Century
(6 Hrs)

Introduction:
 From ancient times to the end of the thirteenth century,
societies in Ethiopia and the Horn underwent political,
economic, social and cultural changes.
 One remarkable change in the period was the evolution of
states with diverse socio-cultural and economic settings.
 While agriculture and trade contributed to the evolution of
states, religions shaped the socio-cultural setup of the states in
different parts of Ethiopia and the Horn.
 The results of the period were socio-cultural achievements
such as architecture, writing, calendar, numerals etc.
Furthermore, the unit explains the external relations of the
period that had significant role in shaping the history of
region.