Chapter 3: Discrete-Time Signals and Systems in Time-

Domain
• Discrete-time Signals
 Basic Sequences and Sequence Operations
• Discrete-time Systems
• LTI Systems
• Properties of LTI Systems
• Linear Constant Coefficient Difference Equations

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Discrete-time Signals
•Discrete-time signals: are mathematically represented as sequence of numbers
A sequence of number x, in which the number in the sequence is denoted as x[n]
is formally written as: x = {x[n]}; , and where n is an integer.
In practical settings, the above sequence is often arisen from a periodic sampling
of analog signals.
 In that case, the numeric value of the number in the sequence is equal to
the value of analog signal
(t), at time nT; i.e.
x
 T: Sampling period (spacing b/n two consecutive samples)
 The sampling frequency is

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Discrete-time Signals
• Although sequences don’t always arise from sampling of analog waveforms, it’s
convenient to refer to x[n] as the “ sample” of the sequence.

Figs:(a)Graphical representation of a discrete-time signal

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Discrete-time Signals

(b)segment of a continuous-time speech signal

(c)sequence of samples obtain from (b) with T=125µs

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Discrete-time Signals
• If
a discrete-time signal is written as a sequence of a numbers inside
braces, the location of the sample value associated with the time index
n = 0 is indicated by an arrow under it.
{x[n]} = {. . . ,0.95.-0.2,2.17,1.1,0.2,-3.67, . . .}

•Classes of sequences
 Finite /infinite (extent in n)
 Real/complex:
 Left and Right-sided

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Classes of Sequences
• Complex sequence : {x[n]} ={[n]} + j{
 Rectangular form ; x = + j
where magnitude |x| = and phase θ
 Polar form : x =
= cos θ +j|x|sin θ
( = cos θ +jsin θ)
(a + jb)+(c + jd) = (a + c) + j(b + d): Addition
r. =r:Multiplication
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Classes of Sequences
• The complex conjugate sequence of {x[n]} usually denoted as {x*[n]}
is:
{x*[n]} ={[n]} - j{
 Flips imaginary part / negates phase:
 Conjugate : x*=
 Useful in resolving to real quantities:
x + x*==2
x.x*=|x|.|x| =

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Classes of Sequences
• Finite–length (finite-duration): defined only for finite time interval:
, where -∞ < and < ∞ with ≥
 The length of the above finite-length sequence is:
N = -+1
• A length-N discrete-time sequence: consists of N samples often referred
to as a N-point sequence.
• A finite-length sequence can be considered as infinite-length sequence
by zero padding
• A right-sided sequence: x[n] has zero-valued samples for n < i.e.
x[n] =0 for n <
where ≥0, a right-sided sequence is usually called causal sequence
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Classes of Sequences
• Left-sided sequence : X[n] has zero-valued samples for n > , i.e., X[n] =0 for n >
where is finite-integer which can be negative or positive.
If ≤0, a left-sided sequence is usually called anti causal.
• A general two-sided sequence is defined for all values of n in the range
.
Fig(a) A left-sided sequence
(b) A right-sided sequence
(c) A two-sided sequence

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Basic Sequences and Sequence operations
Basic operations on sequences :
• Addition operation:

• Multiplication operation:

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Basic Operations On Sequences
• Product (modulation) operation:

 Multiplying an infinite-length sequence by a finite-length window sequence

extract the region
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Basic Operations on Sequences
• Time shifting operation y[n] = x[n – N] where N is an integer
If N > 0, it is delaying operation
−1
Unit delay : x[n] Z y[n] y[n] = x[n – 1]

If N< 0, it is an advance operation

 Unit advance : x[n] Z y[n] y[n] = x[n +1]

• Time-reversal or folding : x[n] x[-n]

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Basic Operations on Sequences
Combination of basic operations:

Y[n] = X[n] + X[n-1] + X [n-2] + X[n-3]

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Basic sequences
• In
discussing the theory of discrete-time signals and systems several
basic sequences are of particular importance.
I. The unit sample sequence

0, n = 0 also called discrete-time impulse

δ[n] = 1, n = 0

• The unit sample sequence plays the same role for discrete-time signals
and systems that unit impulse function (Dirac-delta function) does for
continuous s-time signals and systems.
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Basic Sequences

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Basic Sequences
• An arbitrary sequence can be represented as a sum of scaled, delayed
discrete-impulses.
p[n} =δ[n+3] + δ[n-1] + δ[n-2] + δ[n-7]
• More generally any sequence can be expressed as
x[n] =
• The unit step sequence:

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Basic Sequences
• The unit step is related to the impulse by:
u[n] = ;
i.e., the values of the unit step sequence at (time) index n is equal to the
accumulated sum of the values at index n and all previous values of the impulse
sequence.
• An alternative representation of the unit step in terms of the impulse is obtained
by interpreting the unit step in terms of a sum of delayed impulses.
u[n] = δ[n] +δ[n-1] + δ[n-2] + . . . . Or
u[n] =
• Conversely, the impulse sequence can be expressed as the first backward
difference of the unit step sequence.
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i.e. , δ[n] = u[n] – u[n-1]
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Basic Sequences
Exponential Sequence:
Important in representing and analyzing LTI discrete-time systems:
x[n] = A
If A and α are real numbers, then the sequence is real.
If 0 < and A is positive, then the sequence values are positive and
decrease with increasing n.
If -1 < 0, the sequence values alternate in sign, but again decrease in
magnitude with increasing n.
If |α|>1, then the sequence grows in magnitude with increasing n.
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Basic Sequences

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Basic Sequences
• Sinusoidal sequences:
 A general form: x[n] = A for all n, A and are real constants.
The exponential sequence A with complex A and α has real and
imaginary parts that are exponentially weighted sinusoids.
 α = |α|,and A = |A|
 x[n] = A = |A|
= |A|
= |A| + j|A|
 The sequence oscillates with an exponentially growing envelope if |α|>
1 or with exponentially decaying envelope if |α| < 1.
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Basic Sequences
 If |α|= 1,the sequence is referred to as a complex exponential sequence
and has the form:
x[n] = |A| = |A| +j |A|
 Varies with n (samples)
 is frequency of the complex exponential (radians/sample)
 is phase.
Consider a frequency ||= 1, |A| = real
x[n] = |A|
= A =A

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Symmetry
• Generally complex exponential sequences with frequenciesr), where r is an
integer, are indistinguishable from one another.
• Complex exponential signals of the form
x[n] = A or a real sinusoidal signals of the form:
x[n] = A we need only to consider frequencies in an interval of length ,
( such as - < or 0< ).
Symmetry
 A sequence x[n] is called conjugate-symmetric sequence if x[n] = x*[-n]
 A real conjugate-symmetric sequence is called an even sequence.
 A sequence x[n] is called conjugate-antisymmetric sequence if x[n] = x*[-n] Ɐn

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Symmetry
• A real conjugate-antisymmetric sequence is called an odd sequence
 Even signal: A real-valued signal is even if x[n] = x[-n], for all n
 Odd signal: A real-valued signal is odd if
x[n] = -x[-n], for all n
• Any signal x[n] may be decomposed into sum of its even part , and its
odd part, .
x[n] = +
= {x[n] + x[-n]}
= {x[n] - x[-n]}
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Symmetry
• A complex sequence x[n] can also be expressed as sum of its conjugate-symmetric part
and its conjugate-antisymmetric part :
x[n] = +
= {x[n] + x*[-n]}
= {x[n] – x*[-n]}
Periodic and A periodic signals:
 A sequence x[n] satisfying x[n] = x[n + kN], for all n is called periodic sequence
with period N where N is a positive integer and k is any integer.
 A sequence is called aperiodic sequence if its not periodic.

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Energy and Power Signals
• The total energy of a sequence x[n]:

 The energy of a signal can be finite or infinite.

 If 0 < < , then x[n] is called energy signal.
 The average power of a periodic sequence x[n]:

 If we define the energy of signal x[n] over finite interval –N ≤ n ≤ N as:

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Energy and Power Signals
Then the average power of the signal x[n]:

 If is finite, p = 0
 If E is infinite the average power P may be finite or infinite.
 If P is finite ( and non zero), the signal is called a power signal.
The average power of a periodic sequence x[n] with period N:

Example: Determine the power and energy of the unit step sequence.

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Energy and Power Signals
The average power of the unit step sequence.

=
The unit step sequence is a power signal. Its energy is infinite.
Exercise: Show that the complex exponential sequence x[n] = A has average power of

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Discrete-Time Systems
• Discrete-time system is defined mathematically as a transformation or operator
that maps an input sequence with values x[n] into an output sequence with values
y[n].
y[n] = T{x[n]}
T{.}
x[n] y[n]

Fig: A transformation that maps an input sequence x[n] into unique output
sequence y[n]
 Represents a rule or formula for computing the o/p sequence from the input
sequence values. Examples:
i. The ideal delay system
y[n] = x[n-, -∞ ∞
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Discrete-time Systems
ii. Moving Average
y[n] =
= (x[n+) + x[n+])
Input-output relationship:
x[n] y[n] y[n] is the response of the system T to the excitation of x[n].
• Classes of systems are defined by placing constraints on the properties of the
transformation
T{ . }.

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Discrete-Time Systems
i. Memoryless System
 Output y[n] at every value of n depends only on the input x[n] at the same value
of n.
Example.:
a. y[n] = , for each value of n is memoryless system.
b. y[n] = x[n-], for each value of n if the system is memoryless.
c. The moving average system is not memoryless unless = = 0.

ii. Linear systems

 Defined by the principle of superposition.
 If [n] and are responses of a system when [n] and [n] are the respective inputs,
then the system is linear if and only if:
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Discrete-Time Systems
T{[n] + [n] } = T{[n] } + T{[n] } = [n] + [n] and
T{ ax[n] } = aT{x[n]} = ay[n] where a is an arbitrary constant.
 The first property is called additive property and the second is called
the homogeneity or scaling property.
 These two properties can be combined into the principle of
superposition.
T{[n] + [n] } = aT{[n] } + bT{[n] } for arbitrary constant a and b.
• Generalizing for many inputs
If x[n] = then the o/p of the linear system y[n] =
where is the system response to input .
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Discrete-Time Systems
Example: The accumulator system:
y[n] =
 The o/p at time n is just the sum of the present and all previous input samples.
 The accumulator system is a linear system.
Proof: Show that it satisfies the superposition principle for all the inputs.
Define two arbitrary inputs and and there corresponding outputs
=,
=
When the input is = a + b , the superposition principle requires the output = a + b
for all possible values a and b.
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Discrete-Time Systems
=
=
=a
=a +b
Consider the system defined by
w[n] = is a nonlinear system
Disprove considering

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Time-invariant systems
• Also referred to as shift-invariant system.
 Is a system for which a time-shift or delay of the input sequence causes a
corresponding shift in the output sequence.
• x[n] y[n] (a system transform the input sequence with values x[n] into the
output sequence with values y[n]).
 Then the system is said to be time-invariant if for all ,the input sequence with
values ] produces the output sequence with values
].
Example: The accumulator a time-invariant system
]
]=
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Time-Invariant System
 Next:
= =
Let
= =]
accumulator is time-invariant system.
Causality
• A system is causal, if, for every choice of , the output sequence value at index
n = depends only on the input sequence values for n.
If = for n
then = for n, the system is not anticipative.
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Continued …
Example: The forward difference system y[n] = x[n+1] –x[n]
This system is not causal, as the current value of the output depends on a future
value of the input.
The backward difference system: y[n] = x[n] –x[n-1] output depends only on the
present and past values of the input.
Stability
• A system is stable in the bounded-input, bounded-output (BIBO) sense if every
bounded input sequence produces a bounded output sequence.
• The input x[n] is bounded if there exists a fixed positive finite value ,such that
|x[n]| Ɐn.

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Continued …
• Stability requires for every bounded input there exists a fixed positive
finite value , such that |y[n]| Ɐn
Example: Accumulator x[n] = u[n] , = 1
y[n] =
= 0,n
(n+1),n
• There is no finite choice for , such that (n+1) , Ɐn.
 The system is unstable.

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Linear Time-invariant system
• A sequence of the linear, time-invariance property is that an (LTI) discrete-time is
completely characterized by its impulse response
•Impulse response: the response of a digital filter to unit sample
sequence {δ[n]}.
• Knowing the impulse-response, we can compute the output of the
system to any arbitrary input.
 h[n] denote the impulse response of the LTI discrete-system; the
response to an input δ[n],
If x[n] = δ[n-1]
y[n] = h[n-1]
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LTI Systems
δ[n+2], δ[n-4], δ[n-6]

h[n+2],h[n-4],h[n-6]
• i/p: x[n] = 0.5 δ[n+2] +1.5 δ[n-1]- δ[n-2]+ δ[n-4]+0.75 δ[n-6]
•o/p: y[n] =0.5h[n+2] 1.5h[n-1]-h[n-2]+h[n-4]+0.75h[n-6]

•An arbitrary input sequence x[n] can be expressed as a weighted linear combination of delayed and
advanced unit sample sequences.
x[n] = δ[n-k]

•The response of the LTI discrete-time system to the sequence x[k]δ[n-k],

y[n] = T{δ[n-k]}
y[n] = T{δ[n-k]}

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LTI Systems
y[n] = [n-k] ….. Convolution sum

• A LTI system is completely characterized by its impulse response h[n].

i.e. Given h[n], its possible to compute the o/p y[n] due to any input x[n].
y[n] = x[n] *h[n] -> compact representation
 Each sample of the o/p sequence expressed in terms of all the samples of the i/p
and impulse response sequences.
 The sequence h[n-k], - ,is obtained by;
I. Reflecting h[k] about the origin to obtain h[-k]
II. Shifting the origin of the reflected sequence to k =n
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LTI Systems
Note: h[n-k] = h[-(k-n)]

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LTI Systems
• This method is important for computing convolution using graphical approach.
I. Plot both sequences, x[k] and h[k], as a function of k.
II. Choose one of the sequence, say h[k] and time reverse it to form the sequence
h[-k]
III. Shift the time-reversed by n
IV. Multiply the two sequences x[k] and h[n-k] and sum the product for all values
of k.
• The resulting value will be equal to y[n]. This process is repeated for all possible
shifts, n.
 Note: While performing the convolution of two finite-length sequences, if x[n] is
of length and h[n] is of length ,y[n] =x[n]*h[n] will be of length +-1.
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Analytical Evaluation of Convolution sum
• Consider a system with impulse response:
h[n] = u[n] –u[n-N]

• The input is: x[n] = u[n]

 To find the o/p at a particular index n, we must form the sums over all k of the
product x[k] and h[n-k].
 Clearly, the non zero portions of the sequences x[k] and h[n-k] don’t overlap for
all negative value of n.
y[n] =0, n
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Continued …
• For 0
x[k]h[n-k] =
y[n] = for 0
 From geometric series:
,
y[n] =, 0
• For n-N+1
x[k]h[n-k] = , n-N+1
y[n] = for N-1
y[n] = = ()
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Continued …
• Theclosed-form expression of y[n] as a function of the index n:
0, n
y[n] = , 0
(),

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Properties of LTI systems
• Since all time-invariant systems are described by the convolution sum, the
properties of this class of systems are defined by the properties of discrete-time
convolution.
 The impulse response (IR) is a complete characterization of the properties of a
specific LTI system.
• For class of linear time-invariant systems.
I. The convolution operation is commutative;
x[n]*h[n] = h[n]*x[n]
 The order of the sequences in a convolution is un important.
II. The convolution operation is distributive over addition;
x[n]*[n]+[n]) = x[n]*[n])+x[n]*[n]
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Properties of LTI Systems
• LTI systems, in cascade corresponds to a LTI system with an IR that is the convolution of
the IRs of the two systems

h1 [ n] h2 [ n]
x[n] y[n]

Fig: Three linear time-invariant systems with identical impulse responses.

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Continued …
• Parallel connection:
 The systems have the same input and their outputs are summed to produce an
overall output.
Fig: (a) parallel combination of LTI system (b) An equivalent system

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Stability Condition in terms of IR
•Linear time-invariant systems are BIBO stable if and only if the
impulse response is absolutely summable. i.e. if
s=
 This can be shown as:
|y[n]|= |
if x[n] is bounded, so that |x[n]|
By substituting for x[n-k],
|y[n]|=, thus y[n] is bounded if

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Causal Systems
• Causal systems: y[] depends only on the input samples x[n], for n
 This implies the condition h[n] = 0, n for causality of LTI systems.
• Properties of linear time-invariant systems reflected in the impulse response:
Examples:
I. Ideal Delay
h[n] = δ[n- a positive fixed integer.

II. Moving average

h[n] =
= ,
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0,otherwise
Continued …
III. Accumulator:
h[n] =
1,n
= 0,n
=u[n]
IV. Forward difference:
h[n] = -
 Given the impulse response of these basic systems, we can test the stability of
each by computing:
s=
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Continued …
• For ideal delay, moving average and forward difference, s since the impulse
response has only a finite number of non zero samples.
 Such systems are called finite duration impulse response (FIR) systems.
 FIR systems are always stable.
• The accumulator is unstable
s=
 The impulse response of the accumulator is infinite duration. These class of
systems are referred to as infinite-duration impulse response (IIR) systems.
 h[n] = u[n] with |a| 1 is IIR system that is stable.
s = (formula: sum of the terms of an infinite geometric series)

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Linear constant-coefficient Difference Equation
• Subclass of LTI systems consists of systems for which the input x[n] and y[n]
satisfy an order linear constant-coefficient difference equation:

• Example: Difference equation representation of the accumulation

y[n] =
The output for n-1:
y[n-1] =
y[n] = x[n] +
y[n] = x[n] + y[n-1]
y[n] – y[n-1] =x[n]
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Continued …
 Satisfy a linear constant-coefficient difference equation of the form
with N = 1, , ,M =0 and Solving Linear constant-
coefficient Difference Equation
• The procedure for computing the solution of constant-coefficient difference
equation is very similar to that employed for solving the constant-coefficient
differential equation in the case of an LTI continuous-time system.
• The output response y[n] consists of two components which are computed
independently and then added to yield the total solution.
y[n] =
:homogeneous solution with x[n] =0, i.e. solution to the equation

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Solving Linear Constant coefficient Difference Equation

• Particular solution resulting from the specified into x[n], often called forcing
function
• First compute the homogeneous solution , assume it is of the form:
=
Substituting [n-k] = = 0
=() = 0
Characteristic polynomial of the discrete-time system
Let , , , . . . , denote its N roots

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Continued …
If these roots are all distinct, then general form of the homogenous solution is:
= ++...+
Where , , . . . , are constants determined from the specified initial conditions of the
discrete-time system.
 The determination of the particular solution is of the form as the specified input
x[n], if x[n] has the form
() for all N.
If x[n] is constant, is also assumed constant.
If x[n] is sinusoidal sequence, then is also assumed to be a sinusoidal sequence
and so on.

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Continued …

Terms in x[n] Particular Solution

C
Cn n+
C
C +
C +
C +

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Continued …
• The complete solution:
1. Find the form of the homogeneous solution from the roots of the
characteristic equation.
2. Find a particular solution by assuming that it is of the same form as
the input yet independent of all the terms in homogeneous solution.
3. Determine the coefficients in the homogeneous solution so that the
complete solution.
y[n] = + satisfies the initial condition.

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