Latitude & Longitude

• Two angular measurements

(i.e., latitude and longitude)
Source: Bolstad (2012) • A radius
 Latitude
• Lines of latitude = parallels
• Equator = 0o latitude (plane oriented
perpendicular to the spin axis of the
earth)
• Circumference of parallels
varies
• 1○ latitude = 111 km

Parallels
 Longitude
• Lines of longitude = meridians
• Meridians defined by planes
that pass through earth’s
spin axis
• Prime meridian = 0o longitude
• 1o longitude:
– 111 km at equator
– 0 km at poles
– Equal circumference

Meridians
Global Navigation Satellite System
 GNSS….
• GPS
– USA Air Force
– 32 earth orbit satellites

• GLONASS - Russia
• Galileo – Europe
– 24 satellites
• BeiDou – China
• IRNSS (NAVIC) – India
– 7 Satellites! (Regional ….)
IRNSS
Geographical Distance
Area of a polygon
 Methods of Plane Tabling
1. Radiation
2. Intersection
3. Traversing
4. Resection
– Opposite to Intersection method
– Position of the plane table is determined by
drawing rays from already plotted points (known
points)
 Resection: Methods
• 3 point method
• 2 point method
 Resection Method
• 3 point problem
– 3 well defined points, having locations already
being plotted on the drawing are selected
– These points (locations) are used to find the
location of the plane table station
Resection Method
– In a correctly oriented plane
table, resectors through well
defined points get
intersected at a point.
– Methods:
• Trial and Error method
(Lehman’s method);
• Mechanical method
(Tracing paper method);

• Graphical method
 Trial and Error method
(Lehman's method)
• If the orientation of the
plane table is not proper,
the intersection of the
resectors through the three
points will not meet at a
point.
• Form a triangle, known as
triangle of error.
• The size of the triangle of
error depends upon the
amount of angular error in
the orientation.
 Trial and Error method
(Lehman's method)
• Minimise the triangle of
error to a point
iteratively
• The iterative operation
consist of adjustment of
orientation of the plane
table
• Using Lehman’s
rules….
 Trial and Error method
(Lehman's method)
• Lehman’s rules…. x

y
z
 Trial and Error method
(Lehman's method)
Lehman’s rules…. x
Position of plane Plotted Position
table
Within the great Within the triangle of
triangle error
Outside the great Outside the triangle p
triangle of error
On the great circle Indeterminate
Outside the great It lies on the same
circle side of (i) ray to the y z
most distant point &
(ii) intersection of the
other two rays
outside the great ray to the middle
triangle but inside the point and between
great circle the rays to the two
extreme points
 Trial and Error method
(Lehman's method)
Lehman’s rules….
Position of plane Plotted Position
table
Within the great Within the triangle of
triangle error
Outside the great Outside the triangle
triangle of error
On the great circle Indeterminate
Outside the great It lies on the same
circle side of (i) ray to the
most distant point &
(ii) intersection of the
other two rays
outside the great ray to the middle
triangle but inside the point;
great circle between the rays to
the two extreme
points
 Trial and Error method
(Lehman's method)
Lehman’s rules….
Position of plane Plotted Position
table
Within the great Within the triangle of
triangle error
Outside the great Outside the triangle
triangle of error
On the great circle Indeterminate
Outside the great It lies on the same
circle side of (i) ray to the
most distant point &
(ii) intersection of the
other two rays
Outside the great ray to the middle
triangle but inside the point;
great circle between the rays to
the two extreme
points
 Mechanical method
(Tracing paper method)
• A,B,C – well defined points
plotted on the map (a,b,c)
• Station P need to be located
• Table is placed at P (approx.
location)
• Fix a tracing paper on map
and mark the station (p’)
• Bisect A, B,C & draw rays
(p’a, p’b, p’c)
• Move the tracing paper over
the map and locate the point p
 Graphical method
• A, B,C – well defined points
plotted on the map (a,b,c)
• Locate P?
• Table is placed at location P
(approx.)
• Alidade is placed along the
line ca & point A is bisected
(adjusting the table)
• Table is clamped.
• Draw the rays ca & cb
Graphical method

• Alidade is placed along the

line ac & point C is bisected
(adjusting the table)
• Table is clamped.
• Draw the rays ac & ab
 Graphical method
• Alidade is placed along the line db & point B
is bisected (adjusting the table)
• Table is now perfectly oriented…
• Draw the rays aA, bB & cC
 D
A Station Lat (Deg) Long (Deg)

A 10.9011 76.90211

B 10.89932 76.9023

C 10.89944 76.9035

D 10.90123 76.90348

Find the area of

the surveyed land

C
B
 Convert Degrees to radians
• Radians = Degrees x π/180
Station Lat (Deg) Long (Deg) Lat (Rad) Long (Rad)

A 10.9011 76.90211 0.190164 1.341515

B 10.89932 76.9023 0.190133 1.341518

C 10.89944 76.9035 0.190135 1.341539

D 10.90123 76.90348 0.190166 1.341538

 Lengths of sides
D
A

C
B
 Lengths of sides
D
A

Station Lat (Rad) Long (Rad)

A 0.190164 1.341515

B 0.190133 1.341518

C
B 3.1 X 10-5 3.3 X 10-6
 Lengths of sides
Line Δɸ (Rad) Δλ (Rad) ɸm (Rad) D (m)
AB 3.1 X 10-5 3.3 X 10-6 0.190148 198.9104
BC 2.0 X 10-6 2.0 X 10-5 0.190134 131.6402
CD 3.1X 10-5 3.4 X 10-7 0.19015 198.95
DA 2.2 X 10-6 2.3 X 10-5 0.190165 150.2115
AC 2.8 X 10-5 2.4 X 10-5 0.190149 238.8491
D
A

C
B
 Precision of EDMs
Distance measured with different frequencies and EDMs (m)
EDM -A EDM - B
1001.678 1001.677
1001.67 1001.681
1001.667 1001.675
1001.682 1001.678
1001.674 1001.677
1001.679 1001.682

Average (m) 1001.675 1001.678

SD (m) 0.0057 0.0027
Std Error (m) +0.0023 +0.0011
Std Error (mm) +2.34 +1.09
 Closing Error
Line Distance, m Station Interior Angle
(Deg)
AB 9.12 A 54
BC 8.05 B 154
CD 7.65 C 46
DE 5.66 D 148.50
EA 5.78 E 137.50

While plotting the above compass traverse, closing

error at A (i.e. AA’) is 1 cm.
Scale adopted is 1:100
Distribute the closing error to all the sides using
Bowditch rule.