HEV

Fundamentals of Vehicle movement

Δ- Mass factor depends on rotating components of power train

2
 Vehicle Resistance
• Rolling resistance
• Aerodynamic drag
• Grading resistance
 Rolling Resistance

a) Rolling resistance with hard road b)RR with soft surface

 Rolling Resistance
• Rolling resistance on Hard surface is due to hysteresis
in the tire material

• This is due to deflection of carcass while the tire is

rolling

• This results into uneven distribution of the ground

reaction forces and leads to forward shift of resultant
ground reaction

• P*a = Rolling resistance moment

 Rolling Resistance
• To keep the wheel rolling, a force F acting at the center
of the wheel is required to balance this resistance.

fr= Roiling resistance coefficient

rd = Effective tire radius

Equivalent force called as rolling resistance

 Rolling Resistance
• For slope road

Rolling resistance coefficient depends on

1. Tire material
2. Tire structure
3. Tire temperature
4. Tire inflation pressure
5. Road Roughness
6. Road Material
7. Presence of liquid on the road
 Rolling Resistance

In Vehicle performance calculation it is sufficient to consider

the fr as a linear function of speed
 Aerodynamic Drag
• Force encountered by air to oppose the motion of
vehicle is called as AD
• It results from
1. Shape drag
2. Skin Friction
Shape Drag
 Aerodynamic Drag
• As the air cannot move away instantaneously there is
high pressure ( leads to pushing force at the front)
• As the space is not filled by air results into low pressure
( leads to pulling force)

Skin Friction:

There is difference between the air velocities at the surface of the

vehicle and free stream.

This results into friction called as skin friction

 Aerodynamic Drag
• It depends on
• Vehicle speed
• Vehicle shape
• Vehicle frontal area
• Air density

Where the Vw is the wind speed

 Aerodynamic Drag

Where the Vw is the wind speed

Grading Resistance
 Dynamic Equation of vehicle motion
Net force = Tractive efforts- Resistance

Tractive efforts for Ftf is zero for rear wheel drive and Vise versa
 Maximum tractive efforts that tire ground contact can
support

For front wheel driven vehicles

For rear wheel driven vehicles

If the tractive efforts at wheels is more than this the driven

wheels will spin on the road leading to vehicle instability
Power train tractive efforts and Vehicle speed

Automobile power train Block diagram

Power train tractive efforts and Vehicle speed
Power train tractive efforts and Vehicle speed

Ideal performance of power plant for vehicle traction

 Power train tractive efforts and Vehicle speed

• At higher speed,
increase in losses
reduces engine
torque. But power
continues to increase
due to improved
combustion.
• After peak power it
decreases due to
rapid decrease in the
engine torque.

Performance of typical Gasoline Engine

• This performance is far away from the ideal performance

• Therefore a multi Gear box is required with IC engines to modify this output
 Power train tractive efforts and Vehicle speed

• Speed torque characteristics much

closer to ideal one.
• Single or double gear transmission
is sufficient.
• EM starts from zero speed.
• Voltage increases to its rated value
and flux remains constant upto
base speed.
• Above base point voltage remains
constant, flux get weakened,
power remains constant and
torque decreases hyperbolically.

Performance of traction motor

 Power train tractive efforts and Vehicle speed

Modification of the engine torque at wheel with multigear arrangement.

 Transmission Characteristics

• The maximum speed requirement of vehicle determines the GR

of highest gear.
• GR of lowest gear is determined by max tractive effort and the
gradeability.
• In between the GR are spaced such that TE and speed
characteristics are as close as the ideal one
 Transmission Characteristics

Engine speed and Vehicle speed in different gear

 Transmission Characteristics

Each gear ratio is calculated as given below

Factor Kg is calculated as
Instead of 3 take n-1
 Transmission Characteristics

• Tractive effort for a four gear transmission Gasoline engine and

an electric motor with single gear transmission
• Thus electric drive satisfies the required tractive effort with
simple transmission compared to engine
 Transmission Characteristics

• Tractive effort and speed of a car with an automatic

transmission
• With torque converter and three speed gearbox
 Vehicle performance
• Vehicle performance is described by
• Maximum cruising speed
• Gradeability
• Acceleration
 Vehicle performance
• Vehicle performance is described by
• Maximum cruising speed
• Gradeability
• Acceleration
 Maximum Vehicle speed

• If the tractive efforts is more than resistance a vehicle

accelerates and Vice a versa.
• If they are equal vehicle reaches the maximum speed in the
highest gear as shown in figure
• In case these curve don’t intersects (usually due to large
power plants and large gear ratio) maximum speed of the
vehicles is calculated as

Npmax- maximum speed of the PP

Igmin- minimum gear ratio of transmission
Io- final drive gear ratio
 Gradeability
For Road with small grade

For Road with large grade

 Acceleration
For Road with small grade

The mass factor is given as

This considers the equivalent mass increase due to angular moments of
rotating components
 Acceleration

Acceleration with Gasoline Engine Acceleration with Electric motor

and 4 gear transmission with single gear transmission
 Acceleration

Acceleration time

Acceleration distance
 Engine performance/fuel economy

Fuel economy performance of a typical gasoline engine

 Engine performance/fuel economy
Engine power = resistance power

Engine speed

Fuel consumption in l/h SFC and fuel density

Kg/l for distance S at cruising

speed of V
 Engine performance/fuel economy

Engine operating points with highest and second highest gears

 Engine performance/fuel economy
• Actual driving of the vehicle is different than the constant speed driving as
explained in the previous case
• TO simulate the actual the real driving conditions various drive cycles are
been designed for urban driving and highway driving

EPA FTP75 cycle

Engine performance/fuel economy

Engine operating points in urban driving cycle

Engine performance/fuel economy

Engine operating points in highway driving cycle

 Engine performance/fuel economy
Basic Techniques to Improve Vehicle Fuel Economy

1. Reducing vehicle resistance

2. Improving engine operation efficiency
3. Properly matched transmission
4. Advanced drive trains
 Engine performance

Variation of torque, power and SFC w.r.t. speed of SI engine

 Engine performance

Torque variation w.r.t. throttle opening of SI engine

 Engine performance

Fuel consumption characteristics of a typical SI engine

 Engine performance

Fuel consumption characteristics of a typical SI engine

Engine performance
 Electric vehicles

• Electric vehicles use an electric motor for traction

and battery/fuel cell/ultra capacitors as a power
source
• Advantages over ICE vehicles
• Absence of emission
• Smooth operation
• Freedom from petroleum
• Higher efficiency
• Lower running cost etc.
 Configurations of Electric vehicles

General configuration of EV indicating the various

essential components
 Variety of possible Electric vehicles Configuration

EV configurations:
1 – Conventional driveline with multigear transmission and clutch :

M – Electric
motor
C – Clutch
GB – Gear box

D – Differential

The clutch and gearbox may be replaced by an automatic transmission.

2 – Single-gear transmission without need of a clutch :

M – Electric motor
FG – Fixed gearing
D – Differential

With an electric motor that has a constant power in a long speed range, a fixed
gearing can replace the multispeed gearbox and reduce the need for a clutch as
gear shifting is not needed.
3 – Integrated fixed gearing and differential :

M – Electric motor
FG – Fixed gearing
D – Differential

The electric motor, the fixed gearing and the differential are integrated into a
single assembly while both axles point at both driving wheels.
4 – Two separate motors and fixed gearing with their driveshaft :

M – Electric motor
FG – Fixed gearing

The mechanical differential is replaced by using two traction motors. Each of

them drives one side wheel and operates at a different speed when the vehicle is
running along a curved path.
5 – Direct drive with two separate motors and fixed gearing (In-wheel drive) :

M – Electric motor
FG – Fifed gearing

The traction motors are placed inside the wheels. A thin planetary gear-set is
employed to reduce the motor speed and enhance the motor torque with inline
arrangement of the input and output shaft.
6 – Two separate in-line motor drives :

M – Electric motor

The electric motor is directly connected to the driving wheel. The speed control
of the electric motor is equivalent to the control of the wheel speed and hence
the vehicle speed. It requires the electric motor to have a higher torque to start
and accelerate the vehicle.
 Design of Electric vehicles

• Performance parameters of vehicle are

• Maximum speed
• Acceleration
• Gradeability

And Mostly depends upon the traction motor

characteristics
 Traction Motor Speed- Power and torque
characteristics
• Constant torque in low speed
• Constant power in high speed
• Speed ratio= x= Max. speed/base
speed
• Upto base speed the voltage
supply to the motor is increased
with speed by electronic converter
and flux kept constant
• At base speed the voltage
increases to supply voltage
• After base speed flux is weakened
hyperbolically with speed to keep
the power constant.
• The torque also decreases
Variable Speed Electric motor Characteristics hyperbolically with increase in
speed
 Traction Motor Speed- Power and torque
characteristics
• With long power region torque is
increased. (x=6). This will improve
the acceleration and Gradeability
performance. Also simplified
transmission

• But motors has its limited speed

ratio

• PMM, x= 2
• Induction motor X= 4
• SRM, (Switched reluctance motor)
x=6

Speed and torque profile of 60 kW motor at 2. 4, and 6

speed ratio
 Tractive effort and transmission requirement

Transmission selection single gear or multi gear depends on

motor characteristics . Discussed as below
 Tractive effort and transmission requirement

Tractive effort and vehicle speed for motor with x=2 and three
gear transmission
 Tractive effort and transmission requirement

Tractive effort and vehicle speed for motor with x=4 and two
gear transmission
 Tractive effort and transmission requirement

Tractive effort and vehicle speed for motor with x=6 and two
gear transmission
With a long constant power region ( larger value of ‘x’) , the
maximum torque of the motor can be significantly increased and
hence vehicle acceleration and gradiability performance can be
improved and the transmission can be simplified.

For, permanent magnet motors , x<2

switched reluctance motors, x˃6
induction motors, x=4
Typical electric motor efficiency characteristics
To select the correct type of motor for a particular application,
information on the following points must be available.

1 – Inertia of the connected load referred to the motor shaft.

(Motor torque should be sufficient to overcome load inertia.)
2 – kW of load and the length of time required for each period of

running. (to calculate energy)

3 – Time consumed in standing idle.
4 – Number of starts, stops, reversals, etc. (duty cycle).
5 – Type of braking used for stopping.(Type of external braking if
necessary)
6 – Relation between torque and speed.
7 – Other requirements such as high torque, space limitations,
weight, ambient temperature, etc.
 Tractive effort and transmission requirement

• The Gradeability is determined by the net tractive efforts

• At slow speed the Gradeability is more compared to medium
and high speed

• This equation is mostly used as the previous equation gives

significant error
 Tractive effort and transmission requirement
• Acceleration performance:
• It is evaluated as time taken from low speed to high speed (100
Km/h for passenger cars)

• This performance is for important for passenger car because the

motor rating is usually decided with this performance rather than
cruising speed and Gradeability

• Where Vb- vehicle base speed , Vf- Vehicle final speed

• Pt- Tractive power on the driven wheels at base speed
• First part is accl before base speed and second part accl beyond
the base speed
 Tractive effort and transmission requirement
• Acceleration performance:
• Initially by ignoring rolling resistance and drag

• And tractive power is

• Average power to overcome drag and RR during Acceleration is

• Velocity V at any time t during acceleration is

By putting this in
Previous equation
 Tractive effort and transmission requirement
• Acceleration performance:
• Thus total tractive power to accelerate vehicle from zero
velocity to Vf in time ta is
 Tractive effort and transmission requirement
• Acceleration performance:

Figure indicates that Low

vehicle base speed results
in low rating of the motor
for the given acceleration
performance
Or higher x results in lower
motor rating for ACCLN

Second line indicates

power rating decline rate

Decline rate reduces as x

increases

After x=5 it is not so

effective
• Effect of base speed on tractive power
 Tractive effort
• Acceleration performance:

Acceleration time and distance

Acceleration time =10 sec
 Tractive effort in Normal driving
• Previous section discuss the power capabilities of the power train

• In normal driving these capabilities are rarely used

• Most of the time power train operates at partial load

• Tractive effort and Vehicle speed vary wrt operating conditions

such as uphill or downhill , accln or deccln , city driving, highway
driving, traffic conditions, type and application of the vehicles etc

• It is difficult to describe the tractive effort and vehicle speed

accurately and qualitatively for the actual traffic environment .

• Therefore, some drive cycles are been developed to emulate the

traffic conditions such as FTP175, US06, J227 etc.

• J227a is recommended by SAE and applied for EVs and batteries

 Tractive effort in Normal driving
• Tractive effort for drive cycle
 Tractive effort in Normal driving
• Tractive effort for drive cycle
 Tractive effort in Normal driving
• Tractive effort for drive cycle
 Hybrid Vehicles
Hybrid vehicles with ICE and EV can overcome the disadvantages of individual systems

• High energy density of gasoline/diesel

• Low efficiency of the engine due to its working in the low efficiency
working range
• Emissions
• No regenerative raking
• Low power density of battery/ Low range

76
 Requirement of Vehicle power train

1. To develop sufficient power to meet the vehicle performance of speed and torque

2. To carry enough power source onboard to meet the drive range of the vehicle

3. Demonstrate high efficiency

4. Lowest possible emissions

77
Hybrid vehicle conceptual representation

78
Possible Combinations

79
Architectures of hybrid vehicles

80
Series hybrid drive trains

• Two power sources feed a

single power plant i.e EM
which propels the vehicle
• Engine coupled to EG
• EG connected to electronic
power bus through rectifier.
• Battery connected to bus by
means of power electronic
converters (DC/DC converters)

• Controller of the electric

traction motor is also
connected to power bus
• Traction motor works as
motor or generator.
• Battery charger to charge the
batteries

81
Modes of Operation
1 – Hybrid traction mode (A):
When a large amount of power is demanded,
both engine/generator and PPS supply their
powers to the electric motor drive. The
engine is operated in its optimal region for
efficiency and emission, and the PPS supplies
the additional power to meet the traction
power demand.

Pdemand = Pe/g + Ppps

2 – Peak power source-alone traction mode
(B):
The peak power source alone supplies its
power to meet the power demand.

Pdemand = Ppps
3 – Engine/generator-alone traction mode
(C):
The engine/generator alone supplies its
power to meet the power demand.

Pdemand = Pe/g 82
4 – PPS is charged by engine/generator (D):
When the energy in the PPS decreases to a bottom line, it is charged by engine/ generator:
Ppps = Pe/g
5 – PPS is charged by regenerative braking (E):
PPS is charged by regenerative braking.
Ppps = Pregen
6 – Generally, regenerative braking charging is insufficient. In this case the engine/generator power
is used to propel the vehicle and also to charge PPS (F):
Pe/g = Pdemand + Ppps
7 – Hybrid braking mode (G):
When the required braking power is more than the maximum regenerative braking power,
mechanical braking is used to assist the regenerative braking.
Pdemand = Pregen + Pmech
Series hybrid electric drive trains potentially have the following
operation modes:

84
 Advantages of Series hybrid vehicles
1. Simple to control as mechanical decoupling between two power sources
2. Engine decoupling allows it to run in narrow band of high efficiency .
3. High speed engine can be used
4. No need of multi gear transmission as motor is having ideal speed torque
characteristics
5. Low cost due to simple construction
6. Separate motors can be used at two wheels or four wheels avoiding the use of
differential gear box

85
 Disadvantages of Series hybrid vehicles

1. Low efficiency as multiple conversions ( Mechanical to electrical and electrical to

mechanical)
2. traction motor must be sized to meet maximum requirements since it is the only
power plant propelling the vehicle
3. Generator is additional leads to increase the cost

86
 Parallel Hybrid Electric Drive Trains

Engine gives its power to transmission

Motor also coupled to transmission
The powers of Engine and motor are coupled through mechanical coupling.
This coupling leads to many configurations

87
 Torque-Coupling Parallel Hybrid Electric Drive Trains

• Torque coupling adds the torque of engine and motor or splits the engine torque for
propelling and battery charging .

• Figure shows the conceptual representation of torque coupling

• It has two inputs from Engine and motor and one output to the transmission .
• Following are the relations for output torque and speed if losses are ignored
• Where k1 and k2 are the constant depends on the parameters of coupling

88
 Commonly used mechanical torque coupling devices

Z1=50 , Z2= 50 Z3 = 100 T1= 100 Nm

T2= 50 Nm Then
K1=2 and K2= 2
Tout = 2x100 + 2x50 = 300Nm

Optimum design depends on tractive requirement, engine size and characteristics and
motor size

89
Two axle configuration

This configuration would be suitable in

the case when a relatively
small engine and electric motor are used,
and where a multigear transmission
is needed to enhance the tractive effort
at low speeds

90
Tractive effort for various combinations of
transmissions and vehicle speed

91
Two shaft configuration

92
Single shaft pre transmission torque
combination

93
Single shaft Post transmission torque
combination

94
 Separated axle torque combination

It keeps the original engine and transmission unaltered and adds an electrical traction
system on the other axle
It should be noted that the batteries cannot be charged from the engine when the
vehicle is at a standstill

95
Speed-Coupling Parallel Hybrid Electric Drive Trains

The characteristics of a speed coupling can be described by these equations

96
 Typical speed coupling devices

• Planetary gear box Another interesting device used in speed

• The speed, the sun gear, and the coupling is an electric motor (called a
ring gear are added together and transmotor in this book), in which the stator,
output through the yoke generally fixed to a stationary frame, is released
• The constants k1 and k2 depend as a power-input port. The other two ports are
only on the radius of each gear or the rotor and the air gap through which electric
the number of teeth of each gear energy is converted into mechanical energy 97
Hybrid electric drive train for speed coupling with planetary gear box

• Engine supply power to the sun

gear
• Tr modifies S/T characteristics of
engine
• Motor supplies power to the
ring gear
• Lock 1 and 2 locks sun gear and
ring gear to the frame of the
vehicle

R1=10, R2=20 , R3 = 15

W1=1000 W2= 1500

W3= 1333.333

98
 Operation Modes with speed coupling
1. Hybrid traction: When locks 1 and 2 are released the sun gear and ring gear can rotate
and both the engine and electric machine supply positive speed and torque (positive
power) to the driven wheels.

2. Engine-alone traction: When lock 2 locks the ring gear to the vehicle frame and lock 1 is
released only the engine supplies power to the driven wheels.

3. Motor-alone traction: When lock 1 locks the sun gear to the vehicle frame (engine is
shut off or clutch is disengaged) and lock 2 is released only the electric motor supplies
its power to the driven wheels.

4. Regenerative braking: Lock 1 is set in locking state, the engine is shut off or clutch is
disengaged, and the electric machine is controlled in regenerating operation (negative
torque). The kinetic or potential energy of the vehicle can be absorbed by the electric
system.

5. Battery charging from the engine: When the controller sets a negative speed for the
electric machine, the electric machine absorbs energy from the engine.

99
 Torque-Coupling and Speed-Coupling Parallel Hybrid Electric
Drive Trains
• A hybrid drive train can be constituted in which speed and torque coupling are
alternatively chosen

Speed and torque coupling with planetary gear box

100
 Torque-Coupling and Speed-Coupling Parallel Hybrid Electric
Drive Trains

Torque coupling Event:

• Lock 2 locks ring gear to vehicle frame
• Clutch 1 and 3 engaged
• Clutch 2 disengaged
• Power of Engine and motor is added ( Tout= K1Teng+ K2Tm) here
k1 = 1 and k2 = Z2/Z1
• ( Pout= Pm+ Pe)
• Toxωo= Tm ωm+Te ωe
• Tout= K1Teng+ K2Tm
• Thus torques of Engine and motor are added and delivered to
drive wheel through planetary gear box

101
 Torque-Coupling and Speed-Coupling Parallel Hybrid Electric
Drive Trains

Speed coupling Event:

• Clutch 1 and 2 engaged and clutch 3 disengaged
• Lock 1 and 2 are released
• Yoke speed which is connected to drive wheels is a
combination of engine speed and motor speed
• As shown in fig., From geometry,
2(R3-R1)+R1=R2
2R3-R1=R2
2R3=R1+R2
Therefore, we get
2R3ω3=R1ω1+R2ω2 [ since, Linear velocity=const.]
ωo=(R1/2R3) ωm+(R2/2R3) ωe
where,K1=(R1/2R3) & K2=(R2/2R3)

102
 INTEGRATED SPEED AND TORQUE COUPLING HYBRID ELECTRIC DRIVE TRAIN
(TOYOTA PRIUS)

• In this system,’Planetary gear unit

Tranction motor’ is replaced by
‘Transmotor’
• When,
Clutch 1 engaged,Clutch 2
disengaged Drive train works
in Torque Coupling mode.
Clutch 2 engaged,Clutch 1
disengaged Drive train works
in speed-Coupling mode.
• Example: Toyota Prius uses both
Torque Coupling & Speed Coupling on
a Drive Train
• Planetary Gear Unit splits the engine speed into two speeds.

Planetary Gear Unit

Small Motor Driven Wheels

•Output is given to Small motor through Sun Gear.
•Output is given to Driven Wheels through ring gear and axle-fixed gear
unit.
•At low speeds, Small motor runs with a positive speed.
•As the Vehicle speed increases, the engine speed is fixed at a given
value.
•Due to this,the motor speed decreases to zero.

104
INTEGRATED SPEED AND TORQUE COUPLING HYBRID ELECTRIC DRIVE TRAIN WITH A
TRANSMOTOR

• Lock gets activated Locks Rotor

and Stator together.
• Problem:Vehicle running at High
Speed High Engine speed
High Fuel consumption.
• Solution:Small motor operated with
negative speed which delivers Power
to Drive Train.
• Planetary gear and the Small motor
High Fuel economy.
• The Small motor and the Planetary
Gear unit can be replaced by an
individual Transmotor as shown in
Fig.
THANK YOU

106