UNITS AND MEASUREMENT

1. PhysicalQuantity – Fundamental & Derived Quantities

2. Unit – Fundamental & Derived Units
3. SI System of Units
4. Definition of Fundamental SI units
5. Measurement of Length – Large Distances and
Small Distances
6. Measurement of Mass and Measurement of Time
7. Accuracy, Precision of Instruments and Errors in Measurem
ents
8. Systematic Errors and Random Errors
9. Dimensions, Dimensional Formulae and
Dimensional Equations
10.Dimensional Analysis – Applications- I, II & III and Demerits
Physical Quantity
A quantity which is measurable is called ‘physical quantity’.

Fundamental Quantity
A physical quantity which is the base and can not be derived from any
other quantity is called ‘fundamental quantity’.
Examples: Length, Mass, Time, etc.

Derived Quantity
A physical quantity which can be derived or expressed from base or
fundamental quantity / quantities is called ‘derived quantity’.
Examples: Speed, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum,
torque, energy, pressure, density, thermal conductivity,
resistance, magnetic moment, etc.
Unit
Measurement of any physical quantity involves comparison with a
certain basic, arbitrarily chosen, internationally accepted reference
standard called unit.

Fundamental Units
The units of the fundamental or base quantities are called fundamental
or base units.

Examples: metre, kilogramme, second, etc.

Derived Units
The units of the derived quantities which can be expressed from the
base or fundamental quantities are called derived units.

Examples: m/s, kg/m3, kg m/s2, kg m2/s2, etc.

System of Units
A complete set of both fundamental and derived units is known as the
system of units.

Characteristics of Standard Units

A unit selected for measuring a physical quantity must fulfill the following
requirements:
i) It should be well defined.
ii) It should be of suitable size i.e. it should neither be too large nor too
small in comparison to the quantity to be measured.
iii) It should be reproducible at all places.
iv) It should not change from place to place or time to time.
v) It should not change with the physical conditions such as temperature,
pressure, etc.
vi) It should be easily accessible.
Various System of Units
In earlier time, various systems like ‘fps’, ‘cgs’ and ‘mks’ system of units were
used for measurement. They were named so from the fundamental units in
their respective systems as given below:

Quantity System of units

fps cgs mks
Length foot centi metre metre
Mass pound gramme kilogramme
Time second second second

Systeme Internationale d’ unites (SI Units) (in French)

The SI system with standard scheme of symbols, units and abbreviations was
developed and recommended by General Conference on Weights and
Measures in 1971 for international usage in scientific, technical, industrial and
commercial work.
This is the system of units which is at present accepted internationally.
SI system uses decimal system and therefore conversions within the system
are quite simple and convenient.
Fundamental Units in SI system

Quantity Symbol SI unit Symbol

Length L metre m

Mass M kilogramme kg
Time T second s
Electric Current A ampere A
Main units Thermodynamic K kelvin K
Temperature

Light Intensity Cd candela cd

Amount of mole mole mol
substance

Plane angle dθ radian rad

Supplement
ary units Solid angle dΩ steradian sr
Definition of SI Units
Metre
The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a
time interval of 1/299,792,458 of a second. (1983)

Kilogram
The kilogram is equal to the mass of the international prototype of the
kilogram (a platinum-iridium alloy cylinder) kept at international Bureau of
Weights and Measures, at Sevres, near Paris, France. (1889)
Second
The second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the
ground state of the cesium-133 atom. (1967)

Ampere
The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight
parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section,
and placed 1 metre apart in vacuum, would produce between these
conductors a force equal to 2×10–7 newton per metre of length. (1948)
kelvin
The kelvin, is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic
temperature of the triple point of water. (1967)

Candela
The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a
source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540×1012
hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt
per steradian. (1979)

Mole
The mole is the amount of substance of a system, which contains as
many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogramme of
carbon-12. (1971)
Plane angle
Plane angle ‘dθ’ is the ratio of arc ‘ds’ to the radius ‘r’. Its SI unit is ‘radian’.

ds
r
ds
dθ dθ =
r r
O

Solid angle
Solid angle ‘dΩ’ is the ratio of the intercepted area ‘dA’ of the spherical
surface described at the apex ‘O’ as the centre, to the square of its radius ‘r’.
Its SI unit is ‘steradian’.

dA
r

r
dΩ dA
dΩ =
r2
O
 IMPORTANT

The following conventions are adopted while writing a unit:

(1) Even if a unit is named after a person the unit is not written in
capital
letters. i.e. we write joule not Joule.

(2) For a unit named after a person the symbol is a capital letter e.g. for
joules we write ‘J’ and the rest of them are in lowercase letters e.g.
second is written as ‘s’.

(3) The symbols of units do not have plural form i.e. 70 m not 70 ms or
10 N not 10 Ns.

(4) Punctuation marks are not written after the unit

      e.g. 1 litre = 1000 cc not 1000 c.c.
 Some Units are retained for general use
(Though outside SI)
Name Symbol Value in SI Unit
minute min 60 s
hour h 60 min = 3600 s
day d 24 h = 86400 s
year y 365.25 d = 3.156 x 107 s
degree 0
10 = (π / 180) rad
litre l 1 dm3 = 10-3 m3
tonne t 103 kg
carat c 200 mg
bar bar 0.1 MPa = 105 Pa
curie Ci 3.7 x 1010 s-1
roentgen r 2.58 x 10 -4 Ci/kg
quintal q 100 kg
barn b 100 fm2 = 10-28 m2
are a 1 dam2 = 102 m2
hectare ha 1 hm2 = 104 m2
standard atmosphere atm 101325 Pa = 1.013 x 105 Pa
pressure
MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH
• The order of distances varies from 10-14 m (radius of nucleus) to
1025 m (radius of the Universe)
 
• The distances ranging from 10-5 m to 102 m can be measured by
direct methods which involves comparison of the distance or
length to be measured with the chosen standard length.
 
 
Example:

i) A metre rod can be used to measure distance as small as 10-3 m.

ii) A vernier callipers can be used to measure as small as 10-4 m.
iii) A screw gauge is used to measure as small as 10-5 m.
 
For very small distances or very large distances indirect methods
are used. 
Measurement of Large Distances P

The following indirect methods may be used

to measure very large distances: θ

1.Parallax method
D D
• Let us consider a far away planet ‘P’ at a
distance ‘D’ from our two eyes.

• Suppose that the lines joining the planet

to the left eye (L) and the right eye (R)
subtend an angle θ (in radians).
L b R
• The angle θ is called ‘parallax angle’ or
‘parallactic angle’ and the distance LR = b
is called ‘basis’.
LR b
θ= =
• As the planet is far away, b/D << 1, and D D
therefore θ is very small.
b
• Then, taking the distance LR = b as a D=
θ
circular arc of radius D, we have
Measurement of the size or angular diameter of an astronomical
object

 If ‘d’ is the diameter of the planet and ‘α’ is the

d
angular size of the planet (the angle subtended
by d at the Earth E), then

α = d/D

The angle α can be measured from the same

D D
location on the earth.
α
It is the angle between the two directions
when two diametrically opposite points of the
planet are viewed through the telescope.
E
Since D is known, the diameter d of the planet
can be determined from

d=αD
Estimation of Very Small Distances:
Size of a Molecule
1. Electron microscope

Electron beams can be focused by properly designed electric and

magnetic fields.

The resolution of such an electron microscope is limited finally by

the fact that electrons can also behave as waves.

The wavelength of an electron can be as small as a fraction of an

angstrom.
Such electron microscopes with a resolution of 0.6 Å have been
built. They can almost resolve atoms and molecules(10-8 m to 10-10m)
in a material.

In recent times, tunneling microscopy has been developed in which

again the limit of resolution is better than an angstrom. It is possible
to estimate the sizes of molecules. 
2. Avogadro’s Method:
A simple method for estimating the molecular size of oleic acid
is given below.

Oleic acid is a soapy liquid with large molecular size of the

order of 10–9 m.

The idea is to first form mono-molecular layer of oleic acid on

water surface.

We dissolve 1 cm3 of oleic acid in alcohol to make a solution of

20 cm3 (ml). Then we take 1 cm3 of this solution and dilute it to
20 cm3, using alcohol.
1
So, the concentration of the solution is cm3 of oleic
20 x 20
acid per cm3 of solution.

Next we lightly sprinkle some lycopodium powder on the

surface of water in a large trough and we put one drop of this
solution in the water.

The oleic acid drop spreads into a thin, large and roughly
circular film of molecular thickness on water surface.
Then, we quickly measure the diameter of the thin film to get its
area A.
Suppose we have dropped ‘n’ drops in the water.

Initially, we determine the approximate volume of each drop

(V cm3).

Volume of n drops of solution = nV cm3

1
Amount of oleic acid in this solution = nV c
20 x 20 m3

This solution of oleic acid spreads very fast on the surface of

water and forms a very thin layer of thickness ‘t’.

If this spreads to form a film of area ‘A’ cm2, then the thickness
of the film
Volume of the film nV
t= or t= cm
Area of the film 20 x 20 x A

If we assume that the film has mono-molecular thickness, then

this becomes the size or diameter of a molecule of oleic acid. The
value of this thickness comes out to be of the order of 10 –9m.
 Range of Lengths
The size of the objects we come across in the Universe varies over a very
wide range.

These may vary from the size of the order of 10–14 m of the tiny nucleus of an
atom to the size of the order of 1026 m of the extent of the observable
Universe.

We also use certain special length units for short and large lengths which are
given below:

Unit Symbol Value Definition

1 fermi 1f 10–15 m
1 angstrom 1Å 10–10 m
1 Astronomical 1 AU 1.496 × 1011 m Average distance of the Sun from the Earth

Unit
1 light year 1 ly 9.46 × 1015 m The distance that light travels with speed of
3 × 108 m s–1 in 1 year
1 Parsec 3.08 × 1016 m The distance at which average radius of
( parallactic (3.26 ly) Earth’s orbit subtends an angle of 1 arc
second) second
Range and Order of Lengths (Llongest : Lshortest = 1041 : 1)
S.No Size of the object or distance Length (m)
1 Size of proton 10-15
2 Size of atomic nucleus 10-14
3 Size of the Hydrogen atom 10-10
4 Length of a typical virus 10-8
5 Wavelength of a light 10-7
6 Size of the red blood corpuscle 10-5
7 Thickness of a paper 10-4
8 Height of the Mount Everest from sea level 104
9 Radius of the Earth 107
10 Distance of the moon from the earth 108
11 Distance of the Sun from the earth 1011
12 Distance of the Pluto from the Sun 1013
13 Size of our Galaxy 1021
14 Distance of the Andromeda galaxy 1022
15 Distance of the boundary of observable universe 1026
MEASUREMENT OF MASS
The SI unit of mass is kilogram (kg).

The prototypes of the International standard kilogramme supplied by the

International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) are available in many
other laboratories of different countries.

In India, this is available at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL), New

Delhi.

While dealing with atoms and molecules, the kilogramme is an inconvenient

unit. In this case, there is an important standard unit of mass, called the
unified atomic mass unit (u), which has been established for expressing the
mass of atoms as
1 unified atomic mass unit = 1 u

One unified mass unit is equal to (1/12) of the mass of an atom of Carbon-12
isotope (12C6 ) including the mass of electrons.  

1 u = 1.66 × 10–27 kg
Methods of measuring mass
(i) By using a common balance.

(ii) Large masses in the Universe like planets, stars, etc.,

based on Newton’s law of gravitation can be measured by
using gravitational method.

(iii) For measurement of small masses of atomic/subatomic

particles etc., we make use of mass spectrograph in which

radius of the trajectory is proportional to the mass of a

charged particle moving in uniform electric and magnetic
field. 
Range of Masses

The masses of the objects, we come across in the

Universe, vary over a very wide range.

These may vary from tiny mass of the order of 10-30 kg of

an electron to the huge mass of about 1055 kg of the
known Universe.
Range and Order of Masses (Mlargest : Msmallest = 1085 : 1 ≈ (1041)2)

S.No. Object Mass (kg)

1 Electron 10-30
2 Proton 10-27
3 Uranium atom 10-25
4 Red blood cell 10-13
5 Dust particle 10-9
6 Rain drop 10-6
7 Mosquito 10-5
8 Grape 10-3
9 Human 102
10 Automobile 103
11 Boeing 747 108
12 Moon 1023
13 Earth 1025
14 Sun 1030
15 Milky way galaxy 1041
16 Observable Universe 1055
 MEASUREMENT OF TIME 
We use an atomic standard of time, which is based on the periodic
vibrations produced in a cesium atom. This is the basis of the
cesium clock, sometimes called atomic clock, used in the national
standards.

In the cesium atomic clock, the second is taken as the time needed
for 9,192,631,770 vibrations of the radiation corresponding to the
transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of
cesium-133 atom.

The vibrations of the cesium atom regulate the rate of this cesium
atomic clock just as the vibrations of a balance wheel regulate an
ordinary wristwatch or the vibrations of a small quartz crystal
regulate a quartz wristwatch.

A cesium atomic clock is used at the National Physical

Laboratory (NPL), New Delhi to maintain the Indian standard of
time.
 Range and Order of Time Intervals (Tlongest : Tshortest = 1041 : 1)

S.No. Event Time Intervals (s)

1 Life span of most unstable particle 10-24
2 Time required for light to cross a nuclear distance 10-22
3 Period of X-rays 10-19
4 Period of atomic vibrations 10-15
5 Period of light wave 10-15
6 Life time of an excited atom 10 -8
7 Period of radio wave 10-6
8 Period of sound wave 10-3
9 Wink of eye 10-1
10 Time between successive human heart beats 100
11 Travel time for light from the Moon to the Earth 100
12 Travel time for light from the Sun to the Earth 102
13 Time period of a satellite 104
14 Rotation period of the Earth 105
15 Rotation and revolution periods of the Moon 106
16 Revolution period of the Earth 107
17 Travel time for light from the nearest star 108
18 Average human life span 109
19 Age of Egyptian pyramids 1011
20 Time since dinosaurs became extinct 1015
21 Age of the Universe 1017
ACCURACY, PRECISION OF INSTRUMENTS AND ERRORS IN
MEASUREMENT
Error:
The result of every measurement by any measuring instrument contains
some uncertainty. This uncertainty is called error.
 
Accuracy:
The accuracy of a measurement is a measure of how close the measured
value is to the true value of the quantity.
 
Precision:
Precision tells us to what resolution or limit the quantity is measured.
 
Example:
Suppose the true value of a certain length is near 2.874 cm.

In one experiment, using a measuring instrument of resolution 0.1 cm, the

measured value is found to be 2.7 cm, while in another experiment using a
measuring device of greater resolution, say 0.01 cm, the length is
determined to be 2.69 cm.

The first measurement has more accuracy (because it is closer to the true
value) but less precision (its resolution is only 0.1 cm), while the second
measurement is less accurate but more precise.
In general, the errors in measurement can be broadly classified as

(I) Systematic errors and (II) Random errors

 
I. Systematic errors
The systematic errors are those errors that tend to be in one direction, either
positive or negative.
 
Some of the sources of systematic errors are:
 
(a) Instrumental errors:
The instrumental errors that arise from the errors due to imperfect design
or calibration of the measuring instrument, zero error in the instrument,
etc.

Example:
(i) The temperature graduations of a thermometer may be inadequately
calibrated (it may read 104 °C at the boiling point of water at STP whereas
it should read 100 °C);
(ii) In a vernier callipers the zero mark of vernier scale may not coincide with
the zero mark of the main scale;
(iii) An ordinary metre scale may be worn off at one end.
(b) Imperfection in experimental technique or procedure:

To determine the temperature of a human body, a thermometer

placed under the armpit will always give a temperature lower than
the actual value of the body temperature.
 
(c) Personal errors:
The personal errors arise due to an individual’s bias, lack of
proper setting of the apparatus or individual’s carelessness in
taking observations without observing proper precautions, etc.
 
Example:
If you hold your head a bit too far to the right while reading the
position of a needle on the scale, you will introduce an error due to
parallax.
 
Systematic errors can be minimized by

(i) improving experimental techniques,

(ii) selecting better instruments and
(iii)removing personal bias as far as possible.  
II. Random errors
The random errors are those errors, which occur irregularly and
hence are random with respect to sign and size.

These can arise due to random and unpredictable fluctuations in

experimental conditions, personal errors by the observer taking
readings, etc.
 
Example:
When the same person repeats the same observation, it is very
likely that he may get different readings every time.
 
Least count error

Least count:
The smallest value that can be measured by the measuring
instrument is called its least count.

The least count error is the error associated with the resolution of
the instrument.
 
Example:

(i) A Vernier callipers has the least count as 0.01 cm;

(ii) A spherometer may have a least count of 0.001 cm.

Using instruments of higher precision, improving experimental

techniques, etc., we can reduce the least count error.

Repeating the observations several times and taking the arithmetic

mean of all the observations, the mean value would be very close to
the true value of the measured quantity.
 
Note:
Least count error belongs to Random errors category but within
a limited size; it occurs with both systematic and random errors.
 
Absolute Error, Relative Error and Percentage
Error
• Elimination of error:
• Random error can be minimized by repeating a large number of
times.

• Then the arithmetic mean of all measurements can be taken as the

true value of the measured quantity.

• If a1, a2, a3, …… an be the n measured values of a physical quantity,

then its true value ā is given by the arithmetic mean,
Absolute Error, Relative Error and Percentage
Error …….
• (i) Absolute Error:
• The magnitude of the difference between the true value
of the quantity measured and the individual measured
value is called absolute error.
• If we take arithmetic mean ā as the true value, then the
absolute errors in the individual measured values will be

• The absolute error will always be positive.

Absolute Error, Relative Error and Percentage
Error …….
• (ii) Mean or Final absolute Error:
• The arithmetic mean of the positive magnitudes of all the
absolute errors is called mean absolute error.
• It is given by

• Thus the final result of the measure of a physical

quantity can be expressed as
• Clearly, any measured value of a will be such that
Absolute Error, Relative Error and Percentage
Error …….
• (iii) Relative error:
• The ratio of the mean absolute error to the true value of
the measured quantity is called relative error.

• (iv) Percentage error:

• The relative error expressed in percent is called
percentage error.

•
Combination of Errors
• (a) Error of a sum or a difference

• Hence the rule : When two quantities are added or

subtracted, the absolute error in the final result is the
sum of the absolute errors in the individual quantities.
Combination of Errors . . . .
• (b) Error of a product or a quotient

• Hence the rule : When two quantities are multiplied or divided, the
relative error in the result is the sum of the relative errors in the
multipliers.
Combination of Errors . . . .
• (c) Error in case of a measured quantity raised to a
power
• Suppose Z = A2

• Hence the rule : The relative error in a physical quantity

raised to the power k is the k times the relative error in
the individual quantity.
Significant Figures
• The significant figures are normally those digits in a measured
quantity which are known reliably plus one additional digit that is
uncertain.

• The larger the number of significant figures in a measurement, the

higher is the accuracy of the measurement.

• Ex: Suppose the time period of a simple pendulum is 1.62s. The

digits 1 and 6 are reliable and certain, while the digit 2 is uncertain.
So the time period has three significant figures.
Rules for determining the number of significant
figures:
• All non-zero digits are significant. So 13.75 has four significant
figures.
• All zeros between two non-zero digits are significant, no matter
where the decimal point is, if at all. Thus 100.05km has five
significant figures.
• If the number is less than 1, the zero(s) on the right of decimal point
but to the left of the first non-zero digit are not significant. [In 0.00
2308, the number of significant figures are four. ]
• The terminal or trailing zero(s), in a number without a decimal point
are not significant. [Thus 123 m = 12300 cm = 123000 mm has
three significant figures, the trailing zero(s) being not significant.]
• The trailing zero(s) in a number with a decimal point are significant.
[The numbers 3.500 or 0.06900 have four significant figures each.]
• A choice of change of different units does not change the number of
significant digits or figures in a measurement. The length 2.308 cm
has four significant figures. But in different units, the same value can
be written as 0.02308 m or 23.08 mm or 23080 μm
Rules for Arithmetic operations with significant
figures
• (1) In multiplication or division, the final result should retain as many
significant figures as are there in the original number with the least
significant figures.
• For example ,
Density = 4.237g / 2.51 cm3 = 1.69 g cm-3

• (2) In addition or subtraction, the final result should retain as many

decimal places as are there in the number with the least decimal
places.
• For example,
the sum of the numbers 436.32 g, 227.2 g and 0.301 g by mere
arithmetic addition, is 663.821 g. But the least precise measurement
(227.2 g) is correct to only one decimal place. The final result
should, therefore, be rounded off to 663.8 g.
Rounding off the Uncertain Digits
• The result of computation with approximate numbers, which contain
more than one uncertain digit, should be rounded off.
• The rules for rounding off numbers to the appropriate significant
figures are obvious in most cases.
• The rule by convention is that the preceding digit is raised by 1 if the
insignificant digit to be dropped is more than 5, and is left
unchanged if the latter is less than 5.
• Ex: A number 2.746 rounded off to three significant figures is 2.75,
while the number 2.743 would be 2.74.
• If the insignificant digit to be dropped is 5, the preceding digit is
even, the insignificant digit is simply dropped and, if it is odd, the
preceding digit is raised by 1.
• Ex: the number 2.745 rounded off to three significant figures
becomes 2.74. On the other hand, the number 2.735 rounded off to
three significant figures becomes 2.74 since the preceding digit is
odd.
DIMENSIONS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

• The nature of a physical quantity is described by its dimensions.

• All the physical quantities can be expressed in terms of the seven
base or fundamental quantities viz. mass, length, time, electric
current, thermodynamic temperature, intensity of light and amount
of substance, raised to some power.
• The dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers (or
exponents) to which the fundamental or base quantities are raised
to represent that quantity.
 
Note:
Using the square brackets [ ] around a quantity means that we are
dealing with ‘the dimensions of’ the quantity. 

Example:

i) The dimensions of volume of an object are [L3]

ii) The dimensions of force are [MLT-2]
iii) The dimensions of energy are [ML2T-2]
  Dimensional Quantity
• Dimensional quantity is a physical quantity which has
dimensions.
• For example: Speed, acceleration, momentum, torque, etc.
 Dimensionless Quantity
• Dimensionless quantity is a physical quantity which has no
dimensions.
• For example: Relative density, refractive index, strain, etc.

 Dimensional Constant
• Dimensional constant is a constant which has dimensions.
• For example: Universal Gravitational constant, Planck’s constant,
Hubble constant, Stefan constant, Wien constant, Boltzmann
constant, Universal Gas constant, Faraday constant, etc.

 Dimensionless Constant
• Dimensionless constant is a constant which has no dimensions.
• For example: 5, -.0.38, π, etc.
 DIMENSIONAL FORMULAE AND DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS
• The expression which shows how and which of the base
quantities represent the dimensions of a physical quantity is
called the dimensional formula of the given physical
quantity.

• Example:

(i) The dimensional formula of the volume is [M° L3 T°],

(ii) The dimensional formula of speed or velocity is [M° L T-1]
(iii) The dimensional formula of acceleration is [M° L T–2]

• An equation obtained by equating a physical quantity with

its dimensional formula is called the dimensional equation of
the physical quantity.  
• Example:

(i) [V] = [M° L3 T°]

(ii) [v] = [M° L T-1]
(iii) [a] = [M° L T–2]
  Quantities having the same dimensional formulae 

1. Impulse and momentum

2. Work, energy, torque, moment of force
3. Angular momentum, Planck’s constant, rotational impulse
4. Stress, pressure, modulus of elasticity, energy density
5. Force constant, surface tension, surface energy
6. Angular velocity, frequency, velocity gradient
7. Gravitational potential, latent heat
8. Thermal capacity, entropy, universal gas constant and Boltzmann’s
const.
9. Force, thrust
10.Power, luminous flux
 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND ITS APPLICATIONS
• Dimensional analysis is a tool to find or check relations among
physical quantities by using their dimensions.
• When magnitudes of two or more physical quantities are
multiplied, their units should be treated in the same manner as
ordinary algebraic symbols.
• We can cancel identical units in the numerator and denominator.
• Similarly, physical quantities represented by symbols on both
sides of a mathematical equation must have the same dimensions.
Dimensional Analysis can be used-

1. To check the dimensional consistency of equations

(Principle of homogeneity of dimensions).
2. To convert units in one system into another system.
3. To derive the relation between physical quantities based on
certain reasonable assumptions.
I. Checking the Dimensional Consistency of
Equations

 The principle of homogeneity of dimensions:

• The magnitudes of physical quantities may be

added together or subtracted from one another only
if they have the same dimensions.

• For example, initial velocity can be added to or

subtracted from final velocity because they have
same dimensional formula [M0LT-1] .

• But, force and momentum can not be added

because their dimensional formulae are different
and are [MLT-2] and [MLT-1] respectively.
Example:
1. To check the dimensional consistency of v2 = u2 + 2as
• The dimensions of the quantities involved in the equation
are:
[u] = [M0LT-1]
[v] = [M0LT-1]
[a] = [M0LT-2]
[s] = [M0LT0]
Substituting the dimensions in the given equation,
(Note that the constant 2 in the term ‘2as’ does not have dimensions)

[M0LT-1]2 = [M0LT-1]2 + [M0LT-2] [M0LT0]

[M0L2T-2] = [M0L2T-2] + [M0L2T-2]

Each term of the above equation is having same dimensions.

Therefore, the given equation is dimensionally correct or
dimensionally consistent.
• Note:

• If an equation fails the consistency test, it is proved wrong;

• But if it passes, it is not proved right.

• Thus, a dimensionally correct equation need not be actually an

exact (correct) equation, but a dimensionally wrong (incorrect)
or inconsistent equation must be wrong.

• Example: Equations v2 = u2 - 2as or v2 = u2 + ½as are

dimensionally consistent but are incorrect equations in
mechanics.

• Albert Einstein tried his famous mass-energy equation as

• E = m / c2, E = m2 / c, E = m2 c, etc.

• Finally he settled with E = m c2 using dimensions and then

proved it with the help of Calculus.
2. To check the dimensional consistency of ½ mv2 = mgh

The dimensions of the quantities involved in the equation

are:

[m] = [ML0T0]
[v] = [M0LT-1]
[g] = [M0LT-2]
[h] = [M0LT0]

Substituting the dimensions in the given equation,

(Note that the constant ½ in the term ‘½ mv2 ’ does not have dimensions)

[ML0T0] [M0LT-1]2 = [ML0T0] [M0LT-2] [M0LT0]

[ML2T-2] = [ML2T-2]

Each term of the above equation is having same dimensions.

Therefore, the given equation is dimensionally correct or
dimensionally consistent.
II. Conversion of units in one system into another system
• Units are derived from the dimensions and the dimensions are
derived from the actual formulae of physical quantities.
• If the dimensions are known for a physical quantity, then it is
easy to express it in fps, cgs, mks, SI systems or any other
arbitrary chosen system.

n1[M1aL1bT1c] = n2[M2aL2bT2c]

a b c
M1 L1 T1
n 2 = n1
M2 L2 T2

• n1 and n2 are the magnitudes in the respective systems of units.

• Smaller the unit bigger the magnitude of a physical quantity and
vice versa.
• For example, 1 m = 100 cm (m is the bigger unit and cm is the
smaller one)
1 N = 105 dynes (Newton is bigger and dyne is smaller)
Example:

1. To convert 1 joule in erg.

‘joule’ is unit of energy or work in SI system and ‘erg’ is the unit in cgs system.
The dimensional formula of energy or work is [ML2T-2].
The units from dimensions in SI and cgs systems are kg m2 s-2 and g cm2 s-2
respectively.
Let n1 joule = n2 erg

SI System cgs System

Magnitude n1 = 1 n2 = ?
Mass (M) 1 kg (=1000 g) 1g
Length (L) 1 m (= 100 cm) 1 cm
Time (T) 1s 1s
[MaLbTc] = [ML2T-2] Therefore, a=1, b=2, c=-2

a b c n2 = 1 (1000)1 (100)2 (1)-2

M1 L1 T1
n 2 = n1
M2 L2 T2 n2 = 107
1 2 -2
1000 g 100 cm 1s 1 joule = 107 erg
n2 = 1
1g 1 cm 1s
2. To convert 1 newton into a system where mass is measured in
mg, length in km and time in minute
‘newton or kg m s-2’ is unit of force in SI system and ‘mg km min -2’ is the unit
in the new system.
The dimensional formula of force is [MLT-2].
Let n1 newton = n2 mg km min-2
SI System New System
Magnitude n1 = 1 n2 = ?
Mass (M) 1 kg (=106 mg) 1 mg
Length (L) 1 m (= 1/1000 km) 1 km
Time (T) 1 s (= 1/60) 1s
[MaLbTc] = [MLT-2] Therefore, a=1, b=1, c=-2
a b c
M1 L1 T1 n2 = 1 (106 )1 (10-3)1 (60)2
n 2 = n1
M2 L2 T2 n2 = 3.6 x 106
1 1 -2
106 mg 1/1000 km 1/60 s
n2 = 1 1 newton =3.6x106mg km min-2
1 mg 1 km 1s
 III. Deducing Relation among the Physical Quantities
l
T =k
g
• The method of dimensions can sometimes be used to deduce relation
among the physical quantities.
• For this we should know the dependence of the physical quantity on
other quantities (upto three physical quantities or linearly independent
variables) and consider it as a product type of the dependence.
Example:
1. Consider a simple pendulum, having a bob attached to a string that
oscillates under the action of the force of gravity. Suppose that the period
of oscillation of the simple pendulum depends on its length (l), mass of the
bob (m) and acceleration due to gravity (g). Derive the expression for its
time period using method of dimensions.

The dependence of time period T on the quantities l, g and m as a

product may be written as:

T = k l x m y gz

where k is dimensionless constant and x, y and z are the exponents.

The dimensions of the quantities involved in the equation are:

[m] = [ML0T0]
[l] = [M0LT0]
[g] = [M0LT-2]
[T] = [M0L0T]

By substituting dimensions on both sides of T = k lx my gz, we have

[M0L0T] = [M0LT0]x [ML0T0]y [M0LT-2]z

[M0L0T] = [M]y [L]x+z [T]-2z

On equating the dimensions on both sides, we have

y=0
x+z=0
–2z = 1

So that x = ½ , y = 0, z = -½
Then, T = k l½ g–½
l The value of k is 2π l
Or T = k and T = 2π
g g
determined from
other
 Demerits of Dimensional Analysis
The dimensional analysis can not be used in the following cases:
1. The value of constants in an equation can not be determined as the
constants do not have dimensions.

2. Only dimensional consistency and not the physical consistency can be

tested.

3. Dimensions can be found from the physical quantity, but physical

quantity can not be always guessed from dimensions because two or
more quantities may have same dimensions.

4. The equation containing the dependency on more than 3 quantities can

not be determined using only M, L and T.
(Note that if 4 independent quantities are involved, then 4 variables
and hence 4 simultaneous equations are required; hence there must
be 4 fundamental dimensions)

5. The equation containing exponential, trigonometric, logarithmic

functions, etc. can not be derived as they do not have dimensions.

6. The equations having the relations other than products / quotients can
not be derived.
 Dimensional formulae for some physical quantities
  Physical
Sym Formula Dimensional Unit
quantity bol
formula

Length L Fundamental [M0LT0] m

Mass M Fundamental [ML0T0] kg

Time T Fundamental [M0L0T] s

Area A Length x breadth [M0L2T0] m2

Volume V Length x breadth x height [M0L3T0] m3

General

 
Linear density Mass / length [ML–1T0] kg m–1
 

Mass Density ρ Mass / volume [ML–3T0] Kg m–3

Specific gravity
or RD Density of the substance / [MoLoTo]
density of water ––
relative density
Specific  
volume 1 / density [M–1L3T0] kg–1 m3

Time period T Time taken for 1 [M0L0T] s

oscillation
Frequency ν 1 / time period [M0L0T–1] Hz or s-1
 Distance, displacement, s, λ,   [M0LT0] m
wavelength, focal length f

Speed v Distance / [M0LT–1] m s–1

time

Velocity v Displacement / time [M0LT–1] m s–1

 
Velocity gradient dv / dx [M0L0T–1] s–1

Acceleration or a or Velocity / time [M0LT–2] m s–2

acceleration due to g
Mechanics

gravity
Momentum p Mass x velocity [MLT–1] kg m s–1

kg m s–2
Force F Mass x acceleration [MLT–2] or
newton (N)

Force constant or K Force / extension [ML0T–2] N m–1

spring constant

Impulse j Force x time [MLT–1] N s or

kg m s–1