10.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
FLUIDS – 2
HYDRODYNAMICS
 Mechanical Properties of Fluids - 2
 Viscosity
 Stokes’ Law
 Terminal velocity
 Streamline and turbulent flow
 Critical Velocity.
 Bernoulli’s theorem
 Applications of Bernoulli’s theorem
 Viscosity
• Viscosity is the property of a fluid (liquid or gas) by virtue of which it opposes the relative
motion between its adjacent layers. It is the fluid friction or internal friction.
• The internal tangential force which tends to retard the relative motion between the adjacent
layers is called viscous force.
• Cause of viscosity
Consider a liquid moving slowly
and steadily over a fixed
horizontal surface.
Each layer moves parallel to the fixed
surface.
The layer in contact with the fixed
surface is at rest and the velocity
of the every other layer increases
uniformly upwards, as shown
by arrows of increasing length.
 Viscosity . . . . .
• Consider any two adjacent layers a and b. The upper fast moving layer a
tends to accelerate the lower slow moving layer b, while the slow moving
layer b tends to retard the fast moving layer a.
• As a result, a backward dragging tangential force F, called viscous drag
comes into play which tends to destroy the relative motion.
• Examples of Viscosity:
• When we swim in pool of water, we experience some resistance to our
motion, due to viscous force of water.
• We can walk fast in air, but not in water. This is because viscous force of
air is much smaller than that of water.
• When we stir a liquid contained in a beaker with a glass rod, it starts
rotating in coaxial cylindrical layers. When we stop stirring, the speed of
different layers gradually decreases and finally the water comes to rest,
showing that an internal friction comes into play which destroys the
relative motion between different layers.
 Coefficient of viscosity(η)
• Suppose a liquid is flowing steadily in the form of parallel layers on a fixed
horizontal surface. Consider two layers P and Q at distances x and x+dx from
the fixed surface and moving with velocities v and v+dv respectively.
• Then dv/dx is the rate of change of velocity with distance in the direction of
increasing distance and is called velocity gradient.
• According to Newton, a force of viscosity F acting tangentially between two
layers is
(i) proportional to the area A of the layers in contact.
(ii) proportional to the velocity
gradient dv/dx between two layers
 Coefficient of viscosity(η) . . . .

• Where η(eta) = coefficient of viscosity of the liquid.

It depends on the nature of the liquid.
‘-’ shows that the viscous force acts in the opposite direction of
motion of liquid.
• η = (F/A).(dx/dv)
• η is defined as the tangential viscous force required to maintain a unit
velocity gradient between its two parallel layers each of unit area.
• The CGS unit of η is dyne s cm-2 or g cm-1 s-1 and is called poise
• The SI unit of η is N s m-2 or kg m-1 s-1 and is called decapoise or
poiseuille.
• The viscosity of liquids decreases with increase in temperature
because the separation between molecules increases.
• In gases, as temperature increases, exchange of momenta increases
and hence viscosity increases.
 Stokes’ Law
• According to Stokes’ law, the backward viscous force acting on a small spherical body
of radius r moving with uniform velocity v through fluid of viscosity η is given by
F = 6ϖηrv
• Derivation of Stokes’ law:
Let F = k ηa rb vc -----------(1)
[F] = [η]a [r]b [v]c
[MLT-2] = [ML-1T-1]a [L]b [LT-1]c
= [Ma L-a+b+c T-a-c]
Equating the powers M, L and T on both sides, we get
a =1, -a+b+c = 1 and –a-c = -2
On solving,
a = b = c = 1 --------(2)
By substituting a, b and c values in eq. (1), we get
F = k ηrv
For small sphere, k is found to be equal to 6ϖ,
Hence, F = 6ϖηrv
 Terminal velocity
• The maximum constant velocity acquired by a body while
falling through a viscous medium is called its terminal velocity.
• Derivation of terminal velocity:
Consider a spherical body of radius r falling through a viscous
liquid of density σ and coefficient of viscosity η. Let ρ be the
density of the body.
• As the body falls, the various forces acting on the body are as
shown.
 Terminal velocity…..

• (i) Weight of the body,

W = mg = (4/3) ϖ r3 ρ g , downwards
(ii) Up thrust, U = Vσg = (4/3) ϖ r3 σg , Upwards
(iii) Force of viscosity, F = 6 ϖηrv , upwards.
• The force of viscosity increases as the velocity of the body increases. A
stage is reached, when Fnet = 0. Then the body begins to fall with a
constant maximum velocity, called terminal velocity.
• When the body attains terminal velocity v,
Terminal velocity……

• NOTE:
• The terminal velocity is directly proportional to the square of the
radius of the body. So the bigger rain drops fall with larger
velocity compared to the smaller rain drops.
• It is directly proportional to the difference of the densities of the
body and the fluid,
(a) If ρ>σ , the body will attain terminal velocity in the downward
direction.
(b) If ρ<σ , the body will rise through the fluid.
(c) If ρ = σ , the body remains suspended in the fluid.
• The terminal velocity is inversely proportional to the coefficient of
viscosity of the fluid.
• It is independent of the height through which a body is dropped.
 Streamline Flow
• When a liquid flows such that each particle of the liquid passing a given point
moves along the same path and has the same velocity as its predecessor, the
flow is called streamline flow or steady flow.
• The path followed by a fluid
particle in steady flow is
called a stream line.
• Consider a liquid flowing
through a pipe MN as shown.
Let a liquid particle follows the
path ABC such that its velocities at A, B and C are v1, v2 and v3 respectively.
• All liquid particles which take this path also have the velocities v1, v2 and v3 at
point A, B and C.
• The flow remains streamlined only if the velocity of the liquid is less than a
certain critical velocity.
• A bundle of streamlines forming a tubular region is called a tube of flow.
 Properties of streamlines:
• (i) In a steady flow, no two streamlines can cross each other.
If they do so, the fluid particle at the point of intersection will
have two different directions of flow. This will destroy the
steady nature of the fluid flow.
• (ii) The tangent at any point on the streamline gives the
direction of velocity of fluid particle at that point.
• (iii) Greater the number of streamlines passing normally
through a section of the fluid, larger is the fluid velocity at
that section.
• (iv) Fluid velocity remains constant at any point of
streamline, but it may be different at different points of the
same streamline.
 Turbulent flow
• When the velocity of the flow exceeds its critical velocity, the
flow becomes unsteady or disorderly. Such an irregular flow is
called a turbulent flow.
• In a turbulent flow, the path and the
velocity of flow changes continuously
in an unpredictable manner with time.
• The fig. shows turbulent flow when
an obstacle is placed perpendicular
to the path of a fast moving fluid.
• Ex: Eddies and whirls are seen by the sides of the pillars of a
river bridge.
 Critical velocity(vc)

• The critical velocity of a liquid is that limiting value of its velocity of flow upto which
the flow is streamlined and above which the flow becomes turbulent.
• The critical velocity(vc) of a liquid flowing through a tube depends on (i) coefficient of
viscosity of the liquid(η) (ii) density of the liquid (ρ) and (iii) diameter of the tube (D).
• Let vc = k ηaρbDc , ----------(1)
where k is a dimensionless constant
[M0LT-1] =[ML-1T-1]a [ML-3]b [L]c
= [Ma+b L-a-3b+c T-a]
Equating powers of M, L and T, we get
a + b = 0, -a-3b+c = 1 and –a = -1
On solving, we get a=1, b=-1 and c=-1
By substituting a, b and c values in eq. (1), we get
vc = k ηρ-1D-1 = (kη/ρD)
• NOTE: Here k called Reynold number(Re). If Re lies between 0 and 2000, the flow is
streamlined or laminar. If Re > 3000, the flow is turbulent. If Re lies between 2000 and
3000, the flow is unstable.
 Equation of continuity
• Consider a non-viscous and incompressible liquid flowing steadily between the
sections A and B of a pipe of varying cross-section.
• Let a1 be the area of cross-section, v1 fluid velocity, ρ1 fluid density at section A;
and the values of corresponding quantities at section B be a 2, v2 and ρ2.
• Mass of fluid that flows through
section A in time ∆t,
m1 = a1v1∆tρ1 ------(1)
Mass of fluid that flows through
section B in time ∆t,
m2 = a2v2∆tρ2 -------(2)
• By conservation of mass, m1 = m2
a1v1∆tρ1 = a2v2∆tρ2
As the fluid is incompressible, so ρ1 = ρ2 , and hence
a1v1 = a2v2 or av = constant
This is the equation of continuity.
 Bernoulli’s Principle
• Bernoulli’s principle states that the sum of pressure energy, kinetic energy and
potential energy per unit volume of an ideal fluid(incompressible, non-viscous,
streamlined and irrotational) flow remains constant along a streamline.
Mathematically, it can be expressed as
P + (1/2) ρv2 + ρgh = constant
• Consider an ideal fluid flowing between the sections A and B of a pipe of
varying cross-section. Let a1 be the area of cross-section at A, v1 the fluid
velocity, P1 the fluid pressure, and h1 the mean height above the ground level.
Let a2, v2, P2 and h2 be the values of the corresponding quantities at B.
 Bernoulli’s Principle . . . .
• Let ρ be the density of the fluid.
• Mass of fluid enters the pipe at section A in time ∆t = mass of fluid flows out
at section B in time ∆t.
m = a1v1∆tρ = a2v2∆tρ --------(1)
• From equation of continuity a1v1 = a2v2 ------(2)
 Bernoulli’s Principle . . . .
• By conservation of energy,

• NOTE:
• (i) Bernoulli’s principle is based on the law of conservation of energy and applies to
ideal fluids.
• (ii) The equation of continuity is a special case of the law of conservation of mass.
 Applications of Bernoulli’s theorem
• 1. Speed of Efflux: Torricelli’s Law
• The word efflux means the outflow of a fluid.
• Consider a tank containing a liquid of density ρ with a small hole on its
side at a height y1 from the bottom. Let y2 be the height of the liquid
surface from the bottom and P be the air pressure above the liquid
surface.
• If A1 and A2 are the cross-sectional areas
of the side hole and the tank, and v1 and v2
are the liquid velocities at points 1 and 2.
• From the equation of continuity, we get
A1v1 = A2v2
or v2 = (A1/A2)v1
• As A2>>A1, so the liquid may be taken
at rest.
 1. Speed of Efflux: Torricelli’s Law . . . .
• Applying Bernoulli’s equation at points 1 and 2, we get
 2. Venturimeter
• It is a device used to measure the rate of flow of a liquid through a pipe.
• It is also called flow meter or venturi tube.
• Construction: It consists of a horizontal tube having wider opening of cross-
section a1 and a narrow neck of cross-section a 2. These two regions of the
horizontal tube are connected to a manometer, containing of liquid of density ρm.

• Working: Let the liquid velocities be v1 and v2, and pressures P1 and P2 at the
wider and the narrow portions.
• By the equation of continuity
a1v1 = a2v2 or a1/a2 = v2/v1
 2. Venturimeter…..
• If the liquid has density ρ and is flowing horizontally, then
from Bernoulli’s equation,
3. Atomizer or Sprayer
• The working of an atomizer which is used to spray liquids is based on
Bernoulli’s principle.

• When the rubber balloon is pressed, the air rushes out of the horizontal
tube B decreasing the pressure to p2 which is less than the atmospheric
pressure P1 in the container.
• As a result, the liquid rises up in the vertical tube A.
• When it collides with the high speed air in tube B, it breaks up into a fine
spray.
4. Dynamic Lift

• Dynamic lift is the force that acts on a body by virtue of its motion through a fluid.
• 4(a).Magnus Effect (Observed in a Spinning Ball):
• Tennis and cricket players usually experience that when a ball is thrown spinning it
moves along a curved path. This is called swing of the ball.
• This is due to the air which is being
dragged round by the spinning ball.
• When the ball spins, the layer of the
air around it also moves with the ball.
So, as shown in figure the resultant
velocity of air increases on the
upper side and reduces on the lower side.

• Hence according to Bernoulli's theorem the pressure on the upper side becomes
lower than that on the lower side.
• This pressure difference exerts a force on the ball due to which it moves along a
curved path. This effect is known as Magnus-effect.
 4(b) Aerofoil or Lift on aircraft wing
• This is a structure which is shaped in such a way so that its motion relative to a
fluid produces a force perpendicular to the flow. As shown in the figure the shape of
the aerofoil section causes the fluid to flow faster over the top surface than below
the bottom i.e. the streamlines are closer above than below the aerofoil.

• By Bernoulli's theorem the pressure at above reduced whereas that underneath it

gets increased.
• Thus a resultant upward thrust is generated normal to the flow and it is this force
which provides most of the upward lift for an aeroplane.
• Examples of aerofoils are aircraft wings, turbine blades and propellers.
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