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Logic!
ARVIN S. ENRIQUEZ
Instructor

Discrete Structures 1
 Logic
• Crucial for mathematical reasoning
• Logic is a system based on propositions.
• A proposition is a statement that is either
true or false (not both).
• We say that the truth value of a proposition
is either true (T) or false (F).

• Corresponds to 1 and 0 in digital circuits

Discrete Structures 2
 The Statement/Proposition Game

“Elephants are bigger than mice.”

Is this a statement? yes

Is this a proposition? yes

What is the truth value

of the proposition? true

Discrete Structures 3
 The Statement/Proposition Game

“520 < 111”

Is this a statement? yes

Is this a proposition? yes

What is the truth value

of the proposition? false

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 The Statement/Proposition Game

“y > 5”

Is this a statement? yes

Is this a proposition? no

Its truth value depends on the value of y,

but this value is not specified.
We call this type of statement a
propositional function or open sentence.
Discrete Structures 5
 The Statement/Proposition Game

“Today is January 1 and 99 < 5.”

Is this a statement? yes

Is this a proposition? yes

What is the truth value

of the proposition? false

Discrete Structures 6
 The Statement/Proposition Game

“Please do not fall asleep.”

Is this a statement? no
It’s a request.

Is this a proposition? no

Only statements can be propositions.

Discrete Structures 7
 The Statement/Proposition Game
“If elephants were red,
they could hide in cherry trees.”

Is this a statement? yes

Is this a proposition? yes

What is the truth value

of the proposition? probably false

Discrete Structures 8
 The Statement/Proposition Game
“x < y if and only if y > x.”
Is this a statement? yes
Is this a proposition? yes
… because its truth value does
not depend on specific
values of x and y.

What is the truth value

of the proposition? true
Discrete Structures 9
Simple Proposition
A proposition that
conveys one thought with
no connecting words.

Discrete Structures 10
 Combining Propositions

As we have seen in the previous examples,

one or more propositions can be combined
to form a single compound proposition.

We formalize this by denoting propositions

with letters such as p, q, r, s, and
introducing several logical operators.

Discrete Structures 11
 NEGATION
The negation of a given statement is a
statement that is false whenever the given
statement is true, and true whenever the given
statement is false.
The negation can be obtained by inserting the word
NOT in the given statement of by prefixing it with
phrases such as “It is not the case that…”
The Negation of the statement “Herbert is good”
can be written as:
“Herbert is not good.” OR
“It is not the case that Herbert is good.”
Discrete Structures 12
 CONJUNCTION
Two simple propositions
connected using the word AND.
Example:
“Today is Friday and tomorrow is Saturday”
“Roel was on time, but Tom was late”
“Roel was on time and Tom was late”

Discrete Structures 13
 DISJUNCTION
Two simple propositions that are
connected using the word OR.

Example:
“I will pass the Math Exam or I will be
promoted.”

Discrete Structures 14
 CONDITIONAL
Two simple propositions that are connected using the words
if … then.
Example:
“If you will recite the poem, then you will pass the oral
examination”
-The statement between the if and then is called the
antecedent of the conditional. The sentence that follows
then is called the consequent.
The example can also be written as:
a. If you will recite the poem, you will pass the oral
examination; or
b. You will pass the oral examination if you will recite the poem.

Discrete Structures 15
 BICONDITIONAL
Conjunction of two conditional
statements where the antecedent and
consequent of the first statement have
been switched in the second statement.
Example:
“If two sides of a triangle are congruent,
then the angle opposite them are
congruent, and if two angles of a triangle
are congruent, then the sides opposite
them are congruent.”

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SYMBOLS

Discrete Structures 17
Applications:

Discrete Structures 18
 Parenthesis in symbolic statements are used to tell
what type of statements are being considered. If
there are no parentheses, we follow the dominance of
connectives. The list below gives the connectives in
their dominant order (from the strongest to the
weakest).
1. Biconditional
2. Conditional
3. Disjunction, Conjunction
4. Negation
Note: The conjunction and disjunction are of equal
value.
Discrete Structures 19
Discrete Structures 20
TRUTH TABLE

Discrete Structures 21
 Logical Operators (Connectives)
We will examine the following logical operators:
• Negation (NOT)
• Conjunction (AND)
• Disjunction (OR)
• Exclusive or (XOR)
• Implication (if – then)
• Biconditional (if and only if)
Truth tables can be used to show how these
operators can combine propositions to
compound propositions.
Discrete Structures 22
Negation (NOT)

Discrete Structures 23
 Conjunction (AND)
Binary Operator, Symbol: 
P Q PQ
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

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 Disjunction (OR)
Binary Operator, Symbol: 
P Q P Q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Discrete Structures 25
 Exclusive Or (XOR)
Binary Operator, Symbol: 
P Q P Q
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F

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 Implication (if - then)
Binary Operator, Symbol: 
P Q P Q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Discrete Structures 27
Biconditional (if and only if)
Binary Operator, Symbol: 
P Q P Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Discrete Structures 28
Statements and Operators
Statements and operators can be combined in any
way to form new statements.

Discrete Structures 29
Statements and Operations
Statements and operators can be combined in any
way to form new statements.

Discrete Structures 30
 Equivalent Statements

The statements (PQ) and (P)  (Q) are logically

equivalent, since (PQ)  (P)  (Q) is always true.

Discrete Structures 31
Tautologies and Contradictions

Discrete Structures 32
Tautologies and Contradictions

Discrete Structures 33
 Propositional Functions
Propositional function (open sentence):
statement involving one or more variables,
e.g.: x-3 > 5.

Let us call this propositional function P(x), where

P is the predicate and x is the variable.

What is the truth value of P(2) ? false

What is the truth value of P(8) ? false
What is the truth value of P(9) ? true
Discrete Structures 34
 Propositional Functions
Let us consider the propositional function
Q(x, y, z) defined as:
x + y = z.

Here, Q is the predicate and x, y, and z are the

variables.

What is the truth value of Q(2, 3, 5) ? true

What is the truth value of Q(0, 1, 2) ? false
What is the truth value of Q(9, -9, 0) ? true
Discrete Structures 35
 Universal Quantification
Let P(x) be a propositional function.

Universally quantified sentence:

For all x in the universe of discourse P(x) is true.

Using the universal quantifier :

x P(x) “for all x P(x)” or “for every x P(x)”

(Note: x P(x) is either true or false, so it is a

proposition, not a propositional function.)

Discrete Structures 36
 Universal Quantification
Example:
S(x): x is a UMBC student.
G(x): x is a genius.

What does x (S(x)  G(x)) mean ?

“If x is a UMBC student, then x is a genius.”

or
“All UMBC students are geniuses.”

Discrete Structures 37
 Existential Quantification
Existentially quantified sentence:
There exists an x in the universe of discourse
for which P(x) is true.

Using the existential quantifier :

x P(x) “There is an x such that P(x).”
“There is at least one x such that P(x).”

(Note: x P(x) is either true or false, so it is a

proposition, but no propositional function.)

Discrete Structures 38
 Existential Quantification
Example:
P(x): x is a UMBC professor.
G(x): x is a genius.

What does x (P(x)  G(x)) mean ?

“There is an x such that x is a UMBC professor

and x is a genius.”
or
“At least one UMBC professor is a genius.”

Discrete Structures 39
 Quantification
Another example:
Let the universe of discourse be the real numbers.

What does xy (x + y = 320) mean ?

“For every x there exists a y so that x + y = 320.”

Is it true? yes

Is it true for the natural numbers? no

Discrete Structures 40
 Disproof by Counterexample
A counterexample to x P(x) is an object c so
that P(c) is false.

Statements such as x (P(x)  Q(x)) can be

disproved by simply providing a counterexample.

Statement: “All birds can fly.”

Disproved by counterexample: Penguin.

Discrete Structures 41
 Negation

(x P(x)) is logically equivalent to x (P(x)).

(x P(x)) is logically equivalent to x (P(x)).

See Table 3 in Section 1.3.

I recommend exercises 5 and 9 in Section 1.3.

Discrete Structures 42
 Logical Equivalences
• Identity Laws: p  T  p and p  F  p.
• Domination Laws: p  T  T and p  F  F.
• Idempotent Laws: p  p  p and p  p  p.
• Double Negation Law: ( p)  p.
• Commutative Laws:
(p  q)  (q  p) and (p  q)  (q  p).
• Associative Laws: (p  q)  r  p  (q  r)
and (p  q)  r  p  (q  r).

Discrete Structures 43
 Logical Equivalences
• Distributive Laws:
p  (q  r)  (p  q)  (p  r) and
p  (q  r)  (p  q)  (p  r).
• DeMorgan’s Laws:
(p  q)  ( p   q) and
(p  q)  ( p   q).
• Absorption Laws:
p  (p  q)  p and p  (p  q)  p.
• Negation Laws: p   p  T and p   p  F.

Discrete Structures 44
 Examples
• Find the truth table of [p  (q  r)].
• (An important Theorem) Show that:
p  q  p  q.
• Show the Corollary: (p  q)  p  q.
• Using the tables on page 24, verify the
Absorption Laws:
p  (p  q)  p, and
p  (p  q)  p.

Discrete Structures 45
 Examples

• Negate:
(a) For each integer, n, if 4 divides n, then
2 divides n.

(b) xR, yR  [x  y]  [y  (x + 1)].

Discrete Structures 46