ECOSYSTEM

Concept of an Ecosystem:
Living organisms cannot live isolated from their non-living environment be-cause the latter
provides materials and energy for the survival of the former i.e. a natural self-sufficient unit
which is known as an ecosystem.
Ecosystem are the parts of nature where living organisms interact among themselves and with
their physical environment. The term ‘ecosystem’ was coined by A.G. Tansley, an English
botanist, in 1935. An ecosystem is the structural and functional unit of ecology (nature)
encompassing complex interaction between its biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components.
For example- a pond is a good example of ecosystem. A pond, lake, desert, grassland, meadow,
forest etc. are common examples of ecosystems.
Structure of ecosystem
 1. Abiotic components (non-living)
The abiotic component can be grouped into following categories:-
 Climatic Factors: Which include rain, temperature, light, wind, humidity etc.
 Edaphic Factors: Which include soil, pH, topography minerals etc.
The functions of important factors in abiotic components are given below:
• Soils are much more complex than simple sediments. Soils provide nutrients, water, a home, and a structural
growing medium for organisms. The vegetation found growing on top of a soil is closely linked to this
component of an ecosystem through nutrient cycling.
• The atmosphere provides organisms found within ecosystems with carbon di-oxide for photosynthesis and
oxygen for respiration. The processes of evaporation, transpiration and precipitation cycle water between the
atmosphere and the Earth’s surface.
• Sunlight is also necessary for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis provides the energy for plant growth and
metabolism, and the organic food for other forms of life.
• Water is the medium by which mineral nutrients enter and are trans-located in plants. It is also necessary for the
maintenance of leaf turgidity and is required for photosynthetic chemical reactions. Plants and animals receive
their water from the Earth’s surface and soil. The original source of this water is precipitation from the
atmosphere.
 2. Biotic components (living)
• Biotic components: The living organisms including plants, animals and micro-
organisms (Bacteria and Fungi) that are present in an ecosystem form the biotic
components.
(A)Producers
The green plants have chlorophyll with the help of which they trap solar energy and
change it into chemical energy of carbohydrates using simple inorganic compounds
namely water and carbon dioxide. This process is known as photo-synthesis. As the
green plants manufacture their own food they are known as Autotrophs.

(B) Consumers
The animals lack chlorophyll and are unable to synthesis their own food. There-fore,
they depend on the producers for their food. They are known as heterotrophs (i.e.
heteros = other, trophos = feeder)
The consumers are of four types, namely:
(i) Primary Consumers/First Order
Consumers/Herbivores
(ii) Secondary Consumers/Second Order
Consumers/Primary Carnivores
(iii) Tertiary Consumers/Third Order
Consumers
(iv) Quaternary Consumers/Fourth Order
Consumers/Omnivores.

(C) Decomposers or Reducers

These simple substances are reused by the
producers resulting in a cyclic ex-change of
materials between the biotic community and
the abiotic environment of the ecosystem. The
decomposers are known as Saprotrophs (i.e.,
sapros = rotten, trophos = feeder).
 Ecosystems are complex dynamic system. They perform certain functions.

Functions of ecosystem

Biogeochemical
Productivity (nutrient cycling)
processes

Biological (food
Decomposition chains, food web,
ecological
succession)
Physical (energy
flow)
(I) PRODUCTIVITY
Primary production is defined as the amount of biomass or organic matter produced per unit
area over a time period by plants during photosynthesis. It is expressed in terms of weight (g) or
energy (kcal). The rate of biomass production is called productivity. It is expressed to compare
the productivity of different ecosystems. It can be divided into gross primary productivity (GPP)
and net primary productivity (NPP).It can be divided into gross primary productivity (GPP) and
net primary productivity (NPP). Secondary productivity is defined as the rate of formation of
new organic matter by consumers. Primary productivity depends on the plant species inhabiting
a particular area. It also depends on a variety of environmental factors, availability of nutrients
and photosynthetic capacity of plants.
(II) DECOMPOSITION
Decomposers break down complex organic matter into inorganic substances like carbon
dioxide, water and nutrients and the process is called decomposition. Dead plant remains such
as leaves, bark, flowers and dead remain of animals, including fecal matter, constitute detritus,
which is the raw material for decomposition. The important steps in the process of
decomposition are fragmentation, leaching, catabolism, humification and mineralization.
• Detritivores (e.g., earthworm) break down detritus into smaller particles. This process is called
fragmentation.
• By the process of leaching, watersoluble inorganic nutrients go down into the soil horizon and
get precipitated as unavailable salts.
• This process is called as catabolism. It is important to note that all the above steps in
decomposition operate simultaneously on the detritus.
• Humification and mineralisation occur during decomposition in the soil. Humification leads to
accumulation of a dark coloured amorphous substance called humus that is highly resistant to
microbial action and undergoes decomposition at an extremely slow rate.
• The humus is further degraded by some microbes and release of inorganic nutrients occur by the
process known as mineralization.
Decomposition is largely an oxygen-requiring process. The rate of decomposition is controlled by
chemical composition of detritus and climatic factors. In a particular climatic condition,
decomposition rate is slower if detritus is rich in lignin and chitin, and quicker, if detritus is rich in
nitrogen and water-soluble substances like sugars. Temperature and soil moisture are the most
important climatic factors that regulate decomposition through their effects on the activities of
soil microbes.
(III) ENERGY FLOW
The chemical energy of food is the main source of energy required by all living organisms. This
energy is transmitted to different trophic levels along the food chain. This energy flow is based
on two different laws of thermodynamics:
First law of thermodynamics, that states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it
can only change from one form to another.
Second law of thermodynamics, that states that as energy is transferred more and more of it
is wasted.
The energy flow in the ecosystem is one of the major factors that support the survival of such a
great number of organisms.
Most of the sun’s radiation that falls on the earth is usually reflected back into space by the
earth’s atmosphere. This effective radiation is termed as the Photosynthetically Active
Radiation (PAR). The percent of PAR supports the entire world as plants are the producers in
the ecosystem and all the other organisms are either directly or indirectly dependent on them
for their survival.
The energy flow takes place via food chain and food web.
During the process of energy flow in the ecosystem, plants
being the producers absorb sunlight with the help of the
chloroplasts and a part of it is transformed into chemical
energy n in the process of photosynthesis. This energy is stored
in various organic products in the plants and passed on to the
primary consumers in the food chain when the herbivores
consume (primary consumers) the plants as food and convert
chemical energy accumulated in plant products into kinetic
energy, degradation of energy will occur through its conversion
into heat. Then followed by the secondary consumers. When
these herbivores are consumed by carnivores of the first order
(secondary consumers) further degradation will occur. Finally,
when tertiary consumers consume the carnivores, again energy
will be degraded. Thus, the energy flow is unidirectional in
nature. Based on the source of their nutrition or food,
organisms occupy a specific place in the food chain that is
known as their trophic level. Producers belong to the first
trophic level, herbivores (primary consumer) to the second and
carnivores (secondary consumer) to the third.
(IV) BIOLOGICAL
(A)Food Chain Food chains and energy flow are the functional properties of ecosystems which
make them dynamic. The biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem are linked through them.
TYPES OF FOOD CHAIN

Grazing food chains Detritus food chains

which starts from the green plants that make food for start from the dead organic matter to the detrivore
herbivores and herbivores in turn for the carnivores. organisms which in turn make food for protozoan to
carnivores etc.
(B) Food web the various food chains are interconnected to each 10 other to form a network called
food web. A food web illustrates all possible transfers of energy and nutrient among the organisms
in an ecosystem, whereas food chain traces only one pathway of food.
Differences between food chain and food web
(C) ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION The gradual and fairly predictable change in the species
composition of a given area is called ecological succession.Succession is hence a process that starts
where no living organisms are there – these could be areas where no living organisms ever
existed, say bare rock; or in areas that somehow, lost all the living organisms that existed there.
The former is called primary succession, while the latter is termed secondary succession.
Primary succession: Primary succession is the series of community changes which occur on an
entirely new habitat which has never been colonized before. For example, a newly quarried rock
face or sand dunes. The establishment of a new biotic community is generally slow.
Secondary succession: Secondary succession begins in areas where natural biotic
communities have been destroyed such as in abandoned farm lands, burned or cut
forests, lands that have been flooded. Since some soil or sediment is present, succession
is faster than primary succession.
Succession of Plants
Based on the nature of the habitat – whether it is water (or very wet areas) or it is on very dry areas
– succession of plants is called hydrarch or xerarch, respectively. Hydrarch succession takes place in
wetter areas and the successional series progress from hydric to the mesic conditions. As against
this, xerarch succession takes place in dry areas and the series progress from xeric to mesic
conditions. Hence, both hydrarch and xerarch successions lead to medium water conditions
(mesic) – neither too dry (xeric) nor too wet (hydric). The species that invade a bare area are called
pioneer species.
(V) BIOGIOCHEMICAL PROCESSES
NUTRIENT CYCLING Biogeochemical cycles refer to the flow of such chemical elements and
compounds between organisms and the physical environment. Cyclic exchange of material between
the living organisms and their non-living environment is called Biogeochemical Cycle.
Nutrient cycles are of two types:
(a) Gaseous The reservoir for gaseous type of nutrient cycle (e.g., nitrogen, carbon cycle).
(b) Sedimentary exists in the atmosphere and for the sedimentary cycle (e.g., sulphur and
phosphorus cycle).
(1) Carbon Cycle
Carbon enters into the living world in the form of carbon
dioxide through the process of photosynthesis as
carbohydrates. These organic compounds (food) are then
passed from the producers to the consumers (herbivores &
carnivores). This carbon is finally returned to the
surrounding medium by the process of respiration or
decomposition of plants and animals by the decomposers.
(2) Nitrogen cycle
Nitrogen is an essential component of protein and required by all living organisms including
human beings. Our atmosphere contains nearly 79% of nitrogen. There are five main processes
which essential for nitrogen cycle are elaborated below:
(a)Nitrogen fixation: This process involves conversion of gaseous nitrogen into Ammonia, a form
in which it can be used by plants. Atmospheric nitrogen can be fixed by the following three
methods: -
(i) Atmospheric fixation
(ii) Industrial fixation
(iii) Bacterial fixation

(b) Nitrification: It is a process by which ammonia is converted into nitrates or nitrites by

Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus bacteria respectively. Another soil bacteria Nitrobacter can
covert nitrate into nitrite.

(c) Assimilation: In this process nitrogen fixed by plants is converted into organic molecules such
as proteins, DNA, RNA etc. These molecules make the plant and animal tissue.
(d) Ammonification: Living organisms produce nitrogenous waste products such as urea and uric
acid. These waste products as well as dead remains of organisms are converted back into
inorganic ammonia by the bacteria This process is called ammonification. Ammonifying bacteria
help in this process.
(e) Denitrification: Conversion of nitrates back into gaseous nitrogen is called denitrification.
Denitrifying bacteria live deep in soil near the water table as they like to live in oxygen free
medium. Denitrification is reverse of nitrogen fixation.
(3) Water Cycle
Water is essential for life. Precipitation (rain, snow,
slush dew etc.) is the only source of water on the
earth. Water received from the atmosphere on the
earth returns back to the atmosphere as water
vapour resulting from direct evaporation and
through evapotranspiration the continuous
movement of water in the biosphere is called water
cycle (hydrological cycle).
The driving forces for water cycle are 1) solar
radiation 2) gravity. Evaporation and precipitation
are two main processes involved in water cycle.
These two processes alternate with each other
Water from oceans, lakes, ponds, rivers and streams
evaporates by sun’s heat energy. Plants also
transpire huge amounts of water. Water remains in
the vapour state in air and forms clouds which drift
with wind. Clouds meet with the cold air in the
mountainous.
(4) Phosphorus Cycle
Phosphorus is a major constituent of biological
membranes, nucleic acids and cellular energy
transfer systems. The natural reservoir of
phosphorus is rock, which contains phosphorus in
the form of phosphates. When rocks are
weathered, minute amounts of these phosphates
dissolve in soil solution and are absorbed by the
roots of the plants. Herbivores and other animals
obtain this element from plants. The waste
products and the dead organisms are decomposed
by phosphate-solubilising bacteria releasing
phosphorus. Unlike carbon cycle, there is no
respiratory release of phosphorus into atmosphere.
The other two major and important differences
between carbon and phosphorus cycle are firstly,
atmospheric inputs of phosphorus 15 through
rainfall are much smaller than carbon inputs, and,
secondly, gaseous exchanges of phosphorus
between organism and environment are negligible.
 ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
Ecological pyramids are the graphical representations of trophic levels in an ecosystem. The base
of each pyramid represents the producers or the first trophic level while the apex represents
tertiary or top level consumer. The three ecological pyramids that are usually studied are (a)
pyramid of number; (b) pyramid of biomass; (c) pyramid of energy.
(1)Pyramid of number: In this type of ecological pyramid, the number of organisms in each
trophic level is considered as a level in the pyramid. The pyramid of numbers is usually upright
except for some situations like that of the detritus food chain, where many organisms feed on
one dead plant or animal.
(2) Pyramid of biomass: In this particular type of ecological pyramid, each level takes into account
the amount of biomass produced by each trophic level. The pyramid of biomass is also upright
except for that observed in oceans where large numbers of zooplanktons depend on a relatively
smaller number of phytoplanktons.
(3) Pyramid of energy: Pyramid of energy is the only type of ecological pyramid, which is always
upright as the energy flow in a food chain is always unidirectional. Also, with every increasing
trophic level, some energy is lost into the environment.
Pyramid of biomass
 Natural ecosystem
Natural ecosystem is defined as an ecosystem
found in nature where organisms freely interact
with other components of that environment.
One of the main characteristics of this
ecosystem is that it is a self-sufficient system.
For instance, a forest has both herbivores and
carnivores. Herbivores consume grass, fruits,
and seeds. They are in turn, consumed by the
carnivores. When carnivores die, their body
decomposes into the soil and provides it with
essential nutrients which help in the growth of
trees and grass, which is consumed by
herbivores. Thus, the biological cycle continues.
1. TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM
The ecosystem which is found only on
landforms is known as the terrestrial
ecosystem. The main factor which
differentiates the terrestrial ecosystems from
the aquatic ecosystems is the relative shortage
of water in the terrestrial ecosystems and as a
result the importance that water attains in
these ecosystems due to its limited availability.
Another factor is the better availability of light
in these ecosystems as the environment is a lot
cleaner in land than it is in water. The main
types of terrestrial ecosystems are the forest
ecosystems, the desert ecosystems, the
grassland ecosystems and the mountain
ecosystems.
FOREST ECOSYSTEM
A forest ecosystem is an ecosystem of forests
and resources. Forests are renewable natural
resources. Forests are formed by a community
of plants that are predominantly structurally
defined by their trees, shrubs, herbs, climbers
and ground cover. Soil, animals, insects,
microorganisms and birds are the most
important interacting units of a forest
ecosystem. In India, the forests occupy about
18−20%18−20% of the total land area.1. Abiotic
Components of the forest include inorganic and
organic components present in the soil along
with temperature, rainfall, light, etc.2. Biotic
Components are represented by producers,
consumers and decomposers.
 GRASSLANDS
Grasslands are one of the intermediate stages
in ecological succession and cover a part of the
land on all the altitudes and latitudes at which
climatic and soil conditions do not allow the
growth of trees. Grasslands make up almost a
quarter of the total land surface. The types of
plants that grow here greatly depend on what
the climate and soil are like. Grasslands cover
areas where rainfall is usually low and/or the
soil depth and quality is poor. The low rainfall
prevents the growth of numerous trees and
shrubs but is sufficient to support the growth
of grass cover during the monsoon.
DESERT ECOSYSTEM
Deserts are found throughout the world. These
are regions with very little rainfall. The days are
hot and the nights are cold. The most defining
feature of this ecosystem is the amount of
precipitation it receives, which is the least as
compared to any ecosystem. This ecosystem
can exist from the Arctic to the tropics, not all
deserts are hot, some are often windy. Some
contain rocks while some have sand dunes.
Flora is very rare but highly adaptive animal
species and insects are found here. As
presumed, not all of the deserts are hot. Some
are usually windy. The most striking feature of
this ecosystem is the amount of precipitation it
receives, which is the least as compared to any
other ecosystem. A few deserts are comprised
of rocks while some have sand dunes.
 2. AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
An aquatic ecosystem is an ecosystem in
and surrounding a body of water, in
contrast to land-based terrestrial
ecosystems. Aquatic ecosystems contain
communities of organisms that are
dependent on each other and on their
environment. The two main types of
aquatic ecosystems are marine
ecosystems and freshwater ecosystems.
Freshwater ecosystems may be lentic
(slow moving water, including pools,
ponds, and lakes); lotic (faster moving
water, for example streams and rivers);
and wetlands (areas where the soil is
saturated or inundated for at least part
of the time).
MARINE ECOSYSTEM
Marine ecosystems are the largest of Earth's
aquatic ecosystems and exist in waters that have
a high salt content. These systems contrast with
freshwater ecosystems, which have a lower salt
content. Marine waters cover more than 70% of
the surface of the Earth and account for more
than 97% of Earth's water supply[1][2] and 90%
of habitable space on Earth.[3] Seawater has an
average salinity of 35 parts per thousand of
water. Actual salinity varies among different
marine ecosystems.[4] Marine ecosystems can
be divided into many zones depending upon
water depth and shoreline features. The oceanic
zone is the vast open part of the ocean where
animals such as whales, sharks, and tuna live
FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEM
• The Freshwater is found in the form of ponds,
lakes, streams, frozen water, etc. other than
oceans and seas. The freshwater ecosystem
plays an important role in biodiversity.
However, it is less extensive as compared to
the saltwater ecosystem.
• It supports various species of plants and
animals. These species usually will not be able
to survive in the saltwater ecosystem because
their body is adapted to low-salt content,
unlike saltwater species, which are adapted to
high-salt content. Freshwater bodies are one
of the primary sources of water supply for our
daily uses; This ecosystem is known for “lower
salt content water bodies” generally less than
1%.
 IMPORTANCE OF ECOSYSTEMS
• The importance of the ecosystem can be understood promotes various food chains and food webs.
with the following points and all the terms and factors • It controls essential ecological processes and
associated with it.
promotes lives. Involved in the recycling of nutrients
• The conservation of matter and energy takes place in between biotic and abiotic components.
ecosystems and the energy flowing through the • It helps in maintaining the usual flow of energy in an
system is balanced as it flows from one organism to
ecosystem including- Carbon Cycle, Energy Cycle,
another and the matter is recycled. Different
Nitrogen Cycle, Oxygen Cycle, and Water Cycle.
ecosystems interacting with each other is called the
• The ecosystem also plays an important role in
biosphere.
controlling weeds, rotation of crop, management of
• Therefore, we can say the biosphere is the sum of all
grasslands, forests, biological surveys, conservation of
worldwide ecosystems and is also known as the
soil, wildlife, etc.
ecosphere. An ecosystem comprises: A community
Biotic component Abiotic component.
• It provides habitat to wild plants and animals. It
 Threats
• Habitat loss, which is the lead threat to biodiversity and contributes to the
endangerment of over 80 percent of all species. Pollution, including the use
of chemicals, fossil fuels and plastics, which disrupts the earth’s
ecosystems, injuring species and changing their habits. Rapidly increasing
climate change, which is changing growing patterns, food availability and
migration patterns faster than ecosystems and species can adjust.
Overexploitation, which is the over-harvesting of species faster than they
can naturally reproduce. Invasive species, which are often introduced by
human action and can threaten native species and their ecosystems.
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
Ecosystem services are the benefits that
people obtain from ecosystems. They
contribute to our survival and quality of life,
either directly or indirectly.
Some ecosystem services are well
recognized, such as those that are
necessary for life (e.g., food, clean air, and
water) or that improve our quality of life
(e.g., recreation and beautiful landscapes).
Ecosystem Services are classified under into four
classes

Provisioning Cultural
Services services

Regulating Supporting
services services
Provisioning Services
The products obtained from ecosystems,
such as food, water, fuel, and materials for
building. It is considered as any type of
benefit to people that can be extracted
from nature.
Agro-ecosystems produce food for
humans and, together with the linked
ecosystems that sustain marine and
freshwater fisheries, contribute to global
food security.
Regulating Services
The benefit supplied by ecosystem processes that
moderate natural events is referred to as
regulating service. Pollination, decomposition,
water purification, erosion and flood management,
carbon storage, and climate regulation are all
examples of regulating services of the Ecosystem.
Regulating services are frequently silent and
somewhat inconspicuous operations, the
significance of which becomes obvious only when
something goes wrong:
Cultural Services
The non-material benefits people obtain
from ecosystems are called 'cultural
services. They include artistic inspiration,
cultural identity, a sense of belonging, and
spiritual experiences associated to nature.
They help to create a feeling of place,
promote social cohesiveness, and are
necessary for human health and well-being.
Supporting Services
Supporting services required for the
development of all other ecosystem services.
Examples include biomass generation,
atmospheric oxygen production, soil formation
and retention, nutrient cycling, water cycling,
and habitat provisioning.

Supporting services help ecosystems function

without supplying products or changing
environmental circumstances that directly
benefit humans.
 Ecosystem Preservation and
Conservation Strategies
❖ Legislation
❖ In -situ Conservation
❖ Ex-situ Conservation
❖ Community Participation in Biodiversity Conservation
❖ Recording Indigenous Knowledge.
❖ International Conservation Strategies
➢ The Convention on Biological Diversity
➢ he Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and
Fauna (CITES)
➢ The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance
Legislation
Formal policies and programmes for the protection
and sustainable use of ecosystem resources stretch
back decades.

Major central acts relevant to biodiversity include:

Environment Protection Act, 1986; Fisheries Act,
1897; Forest Act, 1927; Forest (Conservation) Act,
1980; Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 and Wildlife
(Protection) Amendment Act 1991. Biological
Diversity Act, 2002
In -situ Conservation
In-situ conservation refers to the
preservation of ecosystems and natural
habitats, as well as the preservation and
recovery of viable populations of species
in their natural habitats and, in the case
of domesticates or cultivated species, in
the environments in which they have
developed their distinctive
characteristics.
 Ex-situ Conservation
Ex situ conservation is the conservation and
maintenance of plant samples outside their
natural habitat, either in the form of the whole
plant, or as a seed, pollen, and tissue or cell
culture.

This could be in zoological parks and botanical

gardens, or through the forestry institutions
and agricultural research centres.
Community Participation in Biodiversity
Conservation
It is being recognized that no legal provisions
can be effective unless local communities are
involved in planning, management and
monitoring conservation programmes.
Community engagement can help to attain
the ultimate objective of biodiversity and
ecological conservation by protecting people'
economic interests, honouring local cultural
traditions, and increasing community
understanding of natural resource protection.
 Recording Indigenous Knowledge
Local communities' lives are inextricably linked to
their surroundings, and they rely on their
immediate resources to satisfy their
requirements. These communities have extensive
knowledge of the local flora and animals, which is
critical for biodiversity protection. Much of this
knowledge is passed down verbally from
generation to generation.
International Conservation Strategies
Conserving biodiversity is a global
issue that affects every country and
society. It is a critical worldwide
issue. Several international treaties
and agreements are in place to
increase worldwide participation and
commitment to biodiversity
conservation.
Some international treaties and
agreements for International Conservation
1. The Convention on Biological Diversity-This was signed during the
Earth Summit in 1992.
2. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of
Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES)- The treaty, in force since 1975,
controls the export, import, and re-export of endangered and
threatened wildlife.
3. The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance-This
Convention, also known as the Ramsar Convention, was signed in
Ramsar (Iran) in 1971 and came into force in December 1975. It
provides a framework for international cooperation for the
conservation of wetland habitats.
ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION
Process of reversing the degradation of
ecosystems, such as landscapes, lakes and
oceans to regain their ecological
functionality; in other words, to improve the
productivity and capacity of ecosystems to
meet the needs of society.
Examples: restricting livestock from riparian
areas, removing toxic materials from soil or
sediments, and eradicating invasive exotic
species.
How can we restore Ecosystem?
❖ Repairing and replanting wetlands, creek beds, forestland, and other
habitats
❖ Eradicating invasive species
❖ Replacing turfgrass with native species
❖ Planting rain gardens to absorb rainwater running off roofs or asphalt
❖ Monitoring pond and lake habitats and preparing reports on findings
to government authorities
Importance of Ecosystem Restoration
❖ It helps in returning a degraded ecosystem to its historic trajectory, not
its historic condition.
❖ Delivers nature-based solutions for food insecurity, climate change
mitigation and adaptation, and biodiversity loss.
❖ It helps in creating a self-supporting ecosystem that is resilient to
perturbation and has no more intervention.
 THANK YOU
Group members
1.Shubham Tiwari (100) 9. Yash mohan (122)
2. Gazal Aggarwal (103) 10. Princy Nehra (150)
3. Anika garg (108) 11. Vishal kumar (158)
4. Nitin singh (110) 12. Shreya singh (166)
5. Nishtha Agarwal (112) 13. Rahul dixit (175)
6. Ritik (115) 14. Dev Aditya (178)
7. Utkarsh Rastogi (117) 15. Sarthak kulshrestha (185)
8. Hansika garg (119) 16. Arjun kumar sindhu (382)
17. Sudha Chaudhary (384) B. COM PROG.
Section B