Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics

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Glasgow Caledonian University

Thermo fluid - science


Marek Małetka
M2H321917
Books

• Module Script
• Basics of Fluid Mechanics:
https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/textbooks/85

page 2
What is a fluid?

A fluid can be a liquid or gas and may be compressed. Liquids are harder to
compress and take the shape of any container, but with an upper free surface.
Gases are easy to compress and will fill any container completely.
Compressibility is important for fluid mechanics. Whereas a solid shows its
elasticity in tension, compression or shearing a fluid only does so for
compression.
If compressed a fluid increases in pressure, trying to regain its original volume
Perfect and ideal fluid?

An ideal fluid is one without either compressibility or viscosity. A perfect fluid


is one with compressibility but without viscosity. A perfect or ideal gas
conforms to Boyle’s Law:

where p = pressure, V = specific volume, T = absolute temperature, R = the gas


constant.
Properties of fluids

DENSITY
Mass density - mass of substance per unit volume ρ (kgm-3). Typical values:
water =1000 kgm-3, Mercury =13546 kgm-3, air = 1.23 kgm-3

Specific weight - same as specific gravity – weight per unit volume, or force
exerted by gravity upon a unit of the substance, ω (Nm-3). Typical values: water
= 9814 Nm-3, Mercury = 132943 Nm-3, air =12.07 Nm-3
Relative density - ratio of mass density of substance to standard mass density,
e.g. water, σ (unit-less) Typical values: water = 1, mercury = 13.5,
Properties of fluids

VISCOSITY
Dynamic viscosity for Newtonian fluids.

Where u- Coefficient of dynamic viscosity, δu/δy -the velocity gradient or rate


of shear strain
The higher the viscosity the slower the deformation.
Typical values of μ: water =1.14 X 10-3 kgm-1s-1, mercury = 1.552 kgm-1s-1, air
= 1.78 X 10-5 kgm-1s-1,
Properties of fluids

VISCOSITY
Kinematic viscosity (m2s-1)

Ratio of dynamic viscosity to mass density


Properties of fluids

VISCOSITY
Kinematic viscosity (m2s-1)

Ratio of dynamic viscosity to mass density


COMPRESSIBILITY
Bulk modulus of elasticity (K)
 
water = 2 X 109 N/m2
Properties of fluids

SURFACE TENSION
Surface tension arises when a liquid surface is in contact with a solid surface
and is only significant in a small number of engineering applications, e.g. in
correcting instrument readings and in small scale model studies.

At normal temperatures, for water ϒ is about 0.07 N/m. Surface tension


decreases with increasing temperature.
Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids

It is important to categorise which type of fluid is being handled in order to use


the correct friction calculations. (shear stress, τ = μ.δu/δy).
Newtonian fluids (μ constant) include: water, high viscosity fuel, some motor
oils, most mineral oils, gasoline, kerosene, most salts in solution, light
suspensions of dye stuffs, kaolin (clay) slurry.
Non-Newtonian fluids (μ not constant) include: plastics, Bingham plastic,
(yield pseudoplastic, yield dilatant) and thixotropic/rheopectic fluids.
Shear stress vs Velocity gradient or Rate of shear
strain
Plastics – Shear stress must reach a certain minimum before flow commences
Bingham plastics – as for plastics but n = 1
Pseudoplastics – viscosity decreases with rate of shear
Dilatant – viscosity increases with rate of shear
Thixotropic – viscosity decreases with time shear force is applied
Rheopectic – viscosity increases with time shear force is applied
Preassure and head

Pascal’s law for pressure at a point in a fluid at rest.

Pressure acts equally in all directions!

ps acts perpendicular to surface ABCD


px acts perpendicular to surface ABFE
py acts perpendicular to surface FECD

 
Preassure and head

Pascal’s law for pressure at a point in a fluid at rest.

And, as the fluid is at rest, in equilibrium, the sum of the forces in any direction is
zero. Forces due to px, ps and py (sinθ = δy/δs):

 
 

 
Variation Of Pressure Vertically in a Fluid Under
Gravity
In the figure we can see an element of fluid which is a vertical column of constant
cross sectional area, A, surrounded by the same fluid of mass density ρ1 and z1. The
pressure at the bottom of the cylinder is p1 at level z1, and at the top is p2 at level z2.
The fluid is at rest and in equilibrium so all the forces in the vertical direction sum
to zero. i.e. we have:

Thus in a fluid under gravity,


pressure decreases with increase in height
z = (z2 - z1).
Equality Of Pressure at the Same Level in a Static
Fluid
Consider the horizontal cylindrical element of fluid in the figure left, with cross-
sectional area A, in a fluid of density ρ, pressure p1 at the left hand end and
pressure p2 at the right hand end. The fluid is at equilibrium so the sum of the
forces acting in the x direction is zero.
Equality Of Pressure at the Same Level in a Static
Fluid
Pressure in the horizontal direction is constant!

This result is the same for any continuous fluid. It is still true for two connected
tanks which appear not to have any direct connection, for example consider the
tank in the figure below. We have shown above that pl = pr and from the equation
for a vertical pressure change we have:
General Equation For Variation of Pressure in a Static
Fluid
Here we show how the above observations for vertical and horizontal elements of
fluids can be generalised for an element of any orientation.

 
Hydrostatic Pressure and Head

In a fluid of constant density dp/dx = -ρg can be integrated to give

p = -ρgh + constant

Since pressure at free surface is usually atmospheric, patm

p = ρgh + patm

Atmospheric pressure is a datum, pressures > patm are known as gauge pressures
patm varies with atmospheric conditions, so a perfect vacuum is the absolute
pressure standard.
Hydrostatic Pressure and Head

Taking patm = 0 then p = ρgh

So if g is a constant, gauge pressure at X is defined by stating head, h, of given


fluid of mass density, ρ, which would be needed to produce this pressure.
Hydrostatic Pressure and Head

Example 2.1:
A cylinder contains a fluid at a gauge pressure of 350 kN/m2. Express this pressure
in terms of a head of
a) water with ρ = 103 kg/m3)
b) mercury with relative density 13.6.
c) What would be the absolute pressure if the atmospheric pressure is 101.3
kN/m2?
The Hydrostatic Paradox

Pressure exerted by a fluid is dependent only upon the vertical head of fluid and its
mass density. It is not affected by the weight of fluid present. So in the figure
below, all four vessels have the same base area A and are filled to the same height
h with the same fluid density ρ.
Pressure Measurement by Manometry

Manometers cannot be used for very high pressures. There are two types of
manometer:
• Piezometer tube
• U-tube
Pressure or pressure difference can be measures with a U tube manometer.

Manometers use the relationship between pressure and head for pressure
measurement in the manometer or liquid gauge. The simplest form of manometer
is the piezometer tube, consisting of a single vertical tube attached to a pipe in
which fluid is flowing.
Piezometer

Pressure at A = pressure due to column of liquid above A


pA = ρgh1

Pressure at B = pressure due to column of liquid above B


pB = ρgh2

If the liquid is moving in pipe or vessel, the bottom of tube must be flush with
inside of vessel or reading affected by fluid velocity. This type of manometer can
only be used with liquids. Height limits on tube limit the maximum pressure it can
read.
Piezometer

Example 2.2:
What is maximum gauge pressure of water that can be measured by a piezometer
tube 2m high? (ρw = 103 kg/m3)
U-Tube manometer

pB = pC , ρman > ρ
pB = pA + ρgh1
pC = patm + ρmangh2
pA + ρgh1 = patm + ρmangh2
>> pA = patm + ρmangh2 - ρgh1

pA = ρmangh2 - ρgh1 for gauge pressure


U-Tube manometer

Example 2.3:
A U-tube manometer is used to measure the gauge pressure of a fluid P of density
ρ = 800 kg/m3. If the density of the manometer liquid = 13.6 X 103 kg/m3 what will
be the gauge pressure in the pipe (A) if:
a). h1 = 0.5m and D is 0.9m above BC
b). h1 = 0.1m and D is 0.2m below BC
Measuring pressure difference with a U-tube

pC = p D
pC = pA + ρghA
pD = pB + ρg(hB - h) + ρmangh
pA + ρghA = pB + ρg(hB - h) + ρmangh
pA – pB = ρg(hB - hA) + (ρman – ρ)gh

When the pipeline is horizontal hA = hB


Δp = pA – pB = (ρman – ρ)gh
Measuring pressure difference with a U-tube

Example 2.4:
A U-tube manometer is arranged to measure the pressure difference between two
points A and B in a pipeline conveying water of density ρw = 103 kg/m3. The
density of manometric fluid is ρman = 13.6 X 103 kg/m3 and point B is 0.3m
higher than point A. Calculate the pressure difference when h = 0.7m.
Advances to the U-tube manometer

 
Advances to the U-tube manometer

Pressure difference,
p1 – p2 = ρg(z + zd2/D2) = ρgz(1 + zd2/D2)

If D>>d then p1 – p2 = ρgz


Inclined tube manometer

Pressure difference p1 – p2 = ρg(z2 + z1)

Expressing z1 and z2 in terms of x, the reading on the inclined scale:


z2 = x sinӨ z1 = x(d2/D2) p2 = patm = 0 (for gauge)
So, p1 = ρg(z2 + z1)
= ρg (xsinӨ + x(d2/D2)) = ρgx (sinӨ + (d2/D2))
If the movement in large the reservoir is neglected, i.e. z1 = 0
p1 = ρgxsinӨ
Fluid dynamics - flow in pipes

page 32
Key concepts

 
Discharge and mean velocity

The area of cross section of the pipe at point x is A, and the mean velocity here is
um. During time t, a cylinder of fluid will pass point x with a volume = Aumt. The
volume per unit time discharge will thus be:

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐴 𝑢𝑚 𝑡 × 𝑡
𝑄= = = A 𝑢𝑚𝑡
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡
Streamlines and streamtubes

A streamline is an imaginary curve in the fluid across which, at a given instant,


there is no flow. Thus the velocity of every particle of fluid along the streamline is
tangential to it at that moment. Since there can be no flow through solid boundaries
these can also be regarded as streamlines. For a continuous fluid, streamlines will
be continuous lines extending to infinity upstream and downstream, or will form
closed curves as e.g. around a solid object immersed in the flow. If conditions are
steady and the flow pattern does not change from moment to moment, path lines
and streamlines will be identical. If a series of streamlines are drawn through every
point on the perimeter of a cross section, they will form a streamtube.
Continuity – Conservation of Mass

Matter cannot be created or destroyed (it is simply changed into another form of
matter). This principle is known as the Conservation of Mass and we use it in
analysing flowing fluids. The principle is applied to fixed volumes, known as
control volumes (or surfaces).
Continuity – Conservation of Mass

Constriction (negative pressure gradient)

 
 

For incomprissible fluid


Continuity – Conservation of Mass

Diffuser (positive pressure gradient)

 
 

For incomprissible fluid


Continuity – Conservation of Mass

Flow into a junction

For incomprissible fluid  


Continuity – Conservation of Mass

Example 3.1:
A pipeline of diameter 500mm diverges into two lines, of diameter 300mm and
200mm. If the velocity of water flow in the divergent lines is 30 m/s and 40 m/s
respectively, what is the flow upstream of the divergence?
Work and Energy – Laws of motion

If we drop a ball it accelerates downward with an acceleration g = 9.81 m/s2


(neglecting frictional resistance due to air). We can calculate the speed of the ball
after falling a distance h by the formula

v2 = u2 + 2gh (Newton’s Law of motion).

The equation could be applied to a falling droplet of water, as the same laws of
motion apply. A more general approach to finding parameters of motion is to apply
the principle of conservation of energy:
Work and Energy – Laws of motion

Kinetic energy ?
Potential energy ?
Velocity of a continuous jet of fluid

This principle can be applied to continuous jet of water coming from a pipe with
velocity u1. One particle of the liquid with mass m travels with the jet and falls
from height z1 to z2. The velocity changes from u1 to u2. The jet is travelling in air
where the pressure everywhere is atmospheric, so there is no force due to pressure
acting on the fluid. The only force acting is due to gravity.
Velocity of a continuous jet of fluid

Example 3.2:
A jet of water is flowing from a nozzle 3m above ground level with velocity 2 m/s.
What is the jet velocity as it hits the ground, assuming the jet is whole?
Flow from a reservoir

Idealised reservoir – in the reservoir there is no (little) movement of water, so the


kinetic energy is zero, but the gravitational potential energy is mgz1, so
0 + mgz1 = ½ mu22 + mgz2

So, the velocity of the water (neglecting friction in nozzle and pipe) flowing
from the pipe nozzle is:
Flow from a reservoir

Example 3.3:
A reservoir of water has a surface at 310m above the outlet nozzle of a pipe with
diameter 15mm. What is the:

a) Velocity
b) Discharge of the nozzle (volume flow)
c) Mass flow rate
Ignore friction in the nozzle and pipe
Pressure difference when velocities are zero

From fluid statics we know that pressure difference between two points 1 and 2
in a pipe when velocities are zero is:

p2 – p1 = ρg(z1 – z2)

This applies when pressure varies but when fluid is stationary. Compare this with
the equation derived for a moving fluid but constant pressure:

½ u12 + gz1 = ½ u22 + gz2


Bernoulli (energy) equation – derivation
The Bernoulli equation is one of the most
important/useful equations in fluid mechanics; for
simultaneously changing velocity and pressure:

𝑝 1 𝑢❑2 𝑝 𝑢❑2
+ 𝑧 2 [ 𝑚]
1 2 2
+ + 𝑧 1= +
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌 𝑔 2𝑔

Restrictions – must have:


• Steady flow
𝑝 1+
𝜌 𝑢❑2
2
1
+ 𝜌 𝑔𝑧 1=𝑝2 +
𝜌 𝑢❑2
2
2
+ 𝜌 𝑔𝑧 2
𝑁
𝑚 [ ]
2

• Constant density
(i.e. fluid is incompressible)
• Friction losses are negligible
𝑝1 𝑢❑2
𝜌
+
1
2
𝑝 2 𝑢❑2
+𝑔 𝑧 1 = +
𝜌
2
2
+𝑔𝑧 2 [ ]
𝐽
𝑘𝑔
• For conditions on a single streamline
Use of Bernoulli equation
Total energy/unit weight at 1 = total energy/unit
weight at 2

total head at 1 = total head at 2

𝑝 1 𝑢❑2 𝑝 𝑢❑2
+ 𝑧 2 [ 𝑚]
1 2 2
+ + 𝑧 1= +
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌 𝑔 2𝑔

This assumes no energy loss (e.g. from friction) or energy gains (e.g. from a
pump) along the streamline. It can be expanded to include these simply, by adding
the apt energy terms:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
= + + −
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔h𝑡 𝑎𝑡 1 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔h𝑡 𝑎𝑡 2 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔h 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔h𝑡 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔h𝑡
Example of use of Bernoulli – contracting and
expanding pipe

𝑝 1+
𝜌 𝑢❑2
2
1
+ 𝜌 𝑔𝑧 1=𝑝2 +
𝜌 𝑢❑2
2
2
[ ]
+ 𝜌 𝑔𝑧 2
𝑁
𝑚
2

Pressure at section 2: 𝜌
𝑝 2=𝑝 1 +
2 × ( 𝑢❑2
1 − 𝑢2 )
❑2
Example of use of Bernoulli – contracting and
expanding pipe
Example 3.4:
Water is flowing in a horizontal pipe at a rate of 20 m/s at a pressure
of 50 N/m2. A contraction followed immediately by an expansion
constricts the pipe. If this causes a pressure drop of 20 N/m2 what is
the velocity of water downstream of the constriction?:
Example of use of Bernoulli – volumetric flow of
submerged orifice

A tank containing liquid has a submerged circular orifice of cross-


sectional area A, fitted in one side. The formula for volumetric flow
rate in terms of depth h:
𝑝1 𝑢❑2
[ ]
❑2
1 𝑝 2 𝑢 2 𝐽
+ +𝑔 𝑧 1 = + +𝑔𝑧 2
𝜌 2 𝜌 2 𝑘𝑔
Example of use of Bernoulli – volumetric flow of
submerged orifice

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐶𝑣=𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦=
𝑡h𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

The actual velocity will of course be less than the theoretical velocity because of
energy lost due to effect of the orifice on the fluid passing through it. For a well
designed orifice the CV value can be about 0.96.
At 2, the stream lines in the flow are parallel and pressure in the fluid is
atmospheric. This section is called the vena contracta.
Example of use of Bernoulli – volumetric flow of
submerged orifice with contraction coefficient

In order to determine the volumetric flow rate, or discharge, the cross-sectional


area of this section is required. This area will be less than that of the orifice itself
and is given by:

A2 = CCA where CC = coefficient of contraction = area of jet/ area of orifice

Contraction of the jet is quite large so typically CC ~ 0.6


Example of use of Bernoulli – volumetric flow of
submerged orifice with contraction coefficient
Example 3.5:
An orifice of 0.5m diameter is cut into the side of a water reservoir, 15m below
the free surface of the water. The discharge coefficient of the orifice is 0.8. What
is the discharge of the orifice?
Example of use of Bernoulli – orifice plate (flow
meter) in a pipe

Area of orifice = A, so area of flow at 2 = CCA


𝑝1 𝑢❑2
[ ]
❑2
1 𝑝 2 𝑢 2 𝐽
+ +𝑔 𝑧 1 = + +𝑔𝑧 2
𝜌 2 𝜌 2 𝑘𝑔

√( (
2(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )
𝑢2=

))
2
𝐴2
𝜌 1−
𝐴1
Example of use of Bernoulli – orifice plate (flow
meter) in a pipe
But area of jet, A2 = CC X area of orifice, A


2 ( 𝑝 1 −𝑝 2 )
𝑢2=

( ( ))
2
𝐴2
𝜌 × 𝐶❑2
𝑐 1−
𝐴1
But actual velocity = CVu2 And flow rate Q = CCACVu2, and where CD = CCCV

√ ( ( ))
2 ( 𝑝 1 −𝑝 2 )
𝑄=𝐶 𝐷 𝐴 2
𝐴2
𝜌 1−
𝐴1
Example of use of Bernoulli – orifice plate (flow
meter) in a pipe
Example 3.6:
A manometer is attached to tappings on across an orifice plate in a water
pipeline and reads 10m head. If the cross-sectional area of the orifice is 0.05m 2
and the discharge of the orifice is 1 m3/s, what is the diameter of the pipe? (CD
= 0.75)
Example of use of Bernoulli – orifice plate (flow
meter) in a pipe using fluid densities
If density of flowing fluid is ρf and manometer fluid is ρm then:

√ ( )𝜌𝑚
2 𝑔h −1
𝜌𝑓
𝑄=𝐶 𝐷 𝐴

( ( ))
2
𝐴1
1−
𝐴2

Where ρm >>> ρf and h = manometer gauge reading


Example of use of Bernoulli – Venturi (flow) meter

A Venturi meter is installed in a pipe-line. It acts as meter similar to an orifice


plate, but is designed to give a smooth entry to the throat (less energy losses due
to device itself).

√ (( )
2 (𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )
𝑢1=

)
2
𝐴1
𝜌 −1
𝐴2
Contraction does not occur at the throat so CC does not apply.
Example of use of Bernoulli – Venturi (flow) meter
Actual velocity < theoretical by CD and Q = A1u1

√ (( ) )
2 (𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )
𝑄=𝐶 𝐷 𝐴1
𝐴1 2
𝜌 −1
𝐴2

If the tappings are connected to a U-tube manometer and where h is the


manometer reading and ρm and ρf are manometer fluid and flowing fluid


densities:

𝑄=𝐶 𝐷 𝐴 1
2 𝑔h
𝜌𝑚
𝜌𝑓 (
−1 )
(( ) )
2
𝐴1
−1
𝐴2
Static tube and Pitot tube
Tube at right angles to flow. Only static
pressure is registered on U-tube.

Tube parallel to flow. Sum of


static and velocity pressures is
registered on U-tube.
Pitot-static tube
Static pressure alone is registered on the
left. The sum of static and velocity
pressures is registered on the right side of
the U-tube. Velocity pressure is measured
at the entry to the pitot-static tube.


𝑢= 2 𝑔h
If Q is required: take elements of area (A)
𝑝𝑚
𝑝𝑓
−1
( )
and measure velocities (u) then sum:

𝑄=∑ 𝐴𝑢
Flow in drains and open channels
When uniform flow occurs, gravitational
forces exactly balance the frictional
resistance forces which apply as a shear
force along the boundary. Considering the
diagram. The gravity force resolved in the
direction of flow is:
Gravity force = ρg A Lsinθ
Considering channel a small slope:

τ0 = ρgAi = And the boundary shear force in the


direction of flow is:
Shear force = τ0PL

In uniform flow these balance, so


τ0PL = ρgALsinθ >> τ0 = ρgAsinθ/P
P = wetted perimeter, =
hydraulic gradient, R = A/P =
hydraulic radius, τ0 = shear
stress
The Chezy Equation
If we assume the state of rough turbulent flow then we can make the assumption
the shear force is proportional to the flow velocity squared, i.e.

τ0 ∝ v2
τ0 = Kv2

v=
Considering channel a small slope:

Or grouping the constants together as one equal to C: v=C

This is the Chezy equation and the C is the ‘Chezy C’. Because K is not
constant the C is not constant but depends upon Reynolds number and
channel roughness/friction C=
The Manning equation
Many studies have been made of the evaluation of C for different natural and
manmade channels. These have resulted in the fact that today most practising
engineers use some form of this relationship to give C:

This is known as the Manning formula, and the n as Manning’s n/roughness


coefficient and depends on the type and condition of the channel surface.
Mechanics of Fluids

page 67
Laminar Flow

The assumption is that all fluid particles proceed along parallel paths and there is
no transverse component of velocity. Each particle follows exactly the path of the
previous particle. Thus a thin filament of dye will not diffuse. This motion is
predictable and so can be analysed mathematically
Turbulent Flow
The progression of fluid particles is irregular with increasingly haphazard
interchanges of position. Individual particles are subject to fluctuating transverse
velocities so that motion is eddying, not rectilinear. If a dye is injected it will
rapidly diffuse. This is a complex scenario so difficult to calculate and so
relationships are determined by empirical calculations i.e. from experiment.
Steady flow
In steady flow conditions at any point are constant with time. Turbulent flow is
never steady. For convenience in analysis we regard general steady fluid motion as
the norm and fluctuations due to turbulence as only a secondary influence, e.g.
constant discharge in a conduit/pipe – which will generally be true en masse.
Unsteady flow
With unsteady flow conditions can vary at any point over time. This is very
difficult to analyse.
Uniform flow
In uniform flow there is no variation in magnitude and direction of the velocity
vector from one point to another along the path of flow. The area of flow and
velocity must be the same at every cross-section.
Non-uniform flow
In non-uniform flow the velocity vector varies with location, e.g. flow between
converging and diverging boundaries.
Fluids in motion - laminar and turbulent flow
The factor determining laminar or turbulent flow is the ratio:

𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠
Whithn the fluid, expressed by non-dimensional Reynolds Number:

𝜌× 𝑢 × 𝐷
𝑅𝑒=
𝜇
U-fluid chcracteristic velocity
D-distance
ρ- fluid density
𝝁- fluid dynamic viscosity
Reynolds experiment
The factor determining laminar or turbulent flow is the ratio:

Re < 2000 laminar


2000 < Re < 4000 transition
Re > 4000 turbulent
Laminar flow

• Re < 2000 ‘low' velocity


• Dye does not mix with water
• Fluid particles move in straight lines
• Simple mathematical analysis possible
• Rare in practice in water systems
Transitional flow

• 2000 > Re < 4000


• ‘medium' velocity
• Dye stream wavers in water - mixes slightly
Real fluids
• In reality, because fluids are viscous (sticky), energy is lost by flowing fluids
due to friction, which must be taken into account. The effect of the friction
shows itself as a pressure (or head) loss. In a pipe with a real fluid flowing, at
the wall there is a shearing stress retarding the flow.
Real fluids - Pressure loss due to friction in a pipeline
If a manometer is attached to the pipe the pressure (head) difference due to the
energy lost by the fluid overcoming the shear stress can be easily seen.

The pressure at 1 (upstream) is higher than the pressure at 2.


Boundary Layers
When a fluid flows over a stationary surface, e.g. the bed of a river, or the wall of a
pipe, the fluid touching the surface is brought to rest by the shear stress at the wall.
The velocity increases from the wall to a maximum in the main stream of the flow.
Looking at this two-dimensionally we get the velocity profile from the wall to the
centre of the flow.
Boundary layer on a flat plate- laminar

Pressure across boundary layer is assumed to be uniform. Fluid with velocity u is


retarded at surface and the boundary layer begins at leading edge. As more fluid is
slowed down the thickness of the boundary increases. Initially the boundary layer
flow is laminar, even if main flow is not. As the layer thickens flow destabilises
and becomes turbulent. Random movements die out near the surface and a laminar
sub-layer is formed.
Boundary layer on a flat plate- turbulent

In a turbulent layer there is more intermingling of particles and so more nearly


uniform velocity than in a laminar boundary layer. So a velocity gradient is formed
where shear stress near surface is usually greater in a turbulent boundary layer.
There is more ready interchange of particles with the main flow for the turbulent
boundary layer – hence increased thickness of the layer.
Boundary layers in pipes

The boundary layer at the entrance to a tube or pipe grows at wall until at sufficient
distance downstream, the boundary layers coalesce. At this point flow is fully
developed. After this:
• if laminar flow, flow remains laminar
• if turbulent flow, flow remains turbulent
Boundary layers in pipes
Separation of boundary layer
If the pressure gradient in the free stream is zero, the boundary grows in a
downstream direction. If the pressure decreases in the downstream direction, Δp is
negative and the boundary layer decreases. If Δp is positive, the boundary layer
thickens and finally separates from the surface.

Separation – Δp negative
• Net pressure forces + inertia forces overcome viscous resistance forces on
boundary layer
• Boundary layer thickness reduced, so
• Reduced energy losses, as for flow in converging nozzle
Separation of boundary layer
Separation – Δp positive
• Net pressure forces (upstream direction) and help viscous forces, building on
boundary layer
• Boundary layer thickness rapidly increased
• At point where Σ(viscous + pressure) forces = inertial forces, then
• Boundary separates and backflow from separation causes eddies
• Position of separation depends on:
o Roughness of solid
o Reynolds number
o Geometry of solid surface
Separation of boundary layer
Separation – Δp positive
• Net pressure forces (upstream direction) and help viscous forces, building on
boundary layer
• Boundary layer thickness rapidly increased
• At point where Σ(viscous + pressure) forces = inertial forces, then
• Boundary separates and backflow from separation causes eddies
• Position of separation depends on:
o Roughness of solid
o Reynolds number
o Geometry of solid surface
Boundary layer separation – convergent flows

If the flow over a boundary occurs when there is a pressure decrease in the
direction of flow, the fluid will accelerate and the boundary layer will become
thinner. This is the case for convergent flows.
The accelerating fluid maintains the fluid close to the wall in motion. Hence the
flow remains stable and turbulence reduces. Boundary layer separation does not
occur.
Boundary layer separation – divergent flows

When the pressure increases in the direction of flow the situation is very different.
Fluid outside the boundary layer has enough momentum to overcome this pressure
which is trying to push it backwards.

The fluid within the boundary layer has so


little momentum that it will very quickly
be brought to rest, and possibly reversed
in direction. If this reversal occurs it lifts
the boundary layer away from the surface
as shown below. This phenomenon is
known as boundary layer separation.
Examples of boundary layer separation
1.Divergent duct or diffuser

The increasing area of flow causes a velocity drop (according to continuity)


and hence a pressure rise (according to the Bernoulli equation). Increasing the
angle of the diffuser increases the probability of boundary layer separation. In
a Venturi meter it has been found that an angle of about 6 provides the
optimum balance between length of meter and danger of boundary layer
separation, which would cause unacceptable pressure energy losses.
Examples of boundary layer separation
2. Y-junctions

Assuming equal sized pipes, as fluid is removed, the velocities at 2 and 3 are
smaller than at 1, the entrance to the tee. Thus the pressures at 2 and 3 are
lower than at 1. These two adverse pressure gradients can cause the two
separations shown in the diagram above.
Examples of boundary layer separation
3. Y-junctions

Y-junctions are special cases of the Tee-junction with similar separation zones
occurring. Downstream, away from the junction, the boundary layer
reattaches and normal flow occurs i.e. the effect of the boundary layer
separation is only local. Nevertheless fluid downstream of the junction will
have lost energy.
Examples of boundary layer separation
4. Bends

Two separation zones occur in bends as shown above. The pressure at b must
be greater than at a as it must provide the required radial acceleration for the
fluid to get round the bend. There is thus an adverse pressure gradient
between a and b, so separation may occur here.

Pressure at c is less than at the entrance to the bend but pressure at d has
returned to near the entrance value - again this adverse pressure gradient may
cause boundary layer separation.
Examples of boundary layer separation
5. Flow past a cylinder - laminar

The pattern of flow around a cylinder varies with the velocity of flow. If flow
is very slow with the Reynolds number less than 0.5, then there is no
separation of the boundary layers as with the pressure difference shown
above. If Δp is negative the boundary layer sticks to surface. Behind the
cylinder Δp becomes positive and helps viscous forces to detach the boundary
layer.

If 2 < Re < 70 then the boundary layers separate symmetrically on either side
of the cylinder. In the deceleration zone behind the cylinder the ends of these
separated zones remain attached to the cylinder, causing a wake
Examples of boundary layer separation
6. Flow past a cylinder - turbulent

Above a Re of 70 the ends of the separated zones curl up into vortices and
detach alternately from each side forming a trail of vortices on the down
stream side of the cylinder. The wake is narrower than for laminar flow due to
the turbulent boundary layer possessing more momentum and moving along
further before separation.
Examples of boundary layer separation
7. Aerofoil

Normal flow over an aerofoil (a wing cross-section) is shown in the figure


with the boundary layers greatly exaggerated. The velocity increases as air
flows over the wing. The pressure distribution is similar to that shown so
transverse lift force occurs.
Fluid dynamics – Equations of motion, energy loss and
basic pumping systems

page 97
Equation of motion

An element of a non-viscous or ideal fluid is moving along a streamline.


Applying Newton’s Second Law of Motion to the element of fluid:
Force = mass X acceleration

𝑑𝑢
𝑝 𝑑 𝐴− ( 𝑝+𝑑𝑝 ) dA − ρ 𝑔𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃= 𝜌 𝑔𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑠𝑢
𝑑𝑠
Energy Equation for Incompressible flow (Euler)
The Euler equation applies to ideal frictionless fluid:

𝑝 𝑢2
+ +𝑔𝑧 =𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌 2
In a real situation there will be energy loss between two points in the flow and
there may also be specific work extracted from the fluid, so the energy
equation is:

𝑝1 𝑢❑2 𝑝 𝑢❑2
+ 1 +𝑔 𝑧 1 = 2 + 2 +𝑔 𝑧 2+𝑒 𝑓 1− 2+ 𝑒𝑤 1 −2
𝜌 2 𝜌 2
Where:
ef1-2 = specific energy loss between 1 and 2 (J/kg)
ew1-2 = specific work done BY fluid (e.g on turbine) between 1 and 2 (J/kg)
Energy Loss
Energy loss can be expressed in terms of the pipeline characteristics and
losses due to friction caused by the length or roughness of pipe, bends, tees,
valves and other fittings.
𝑓𝐿𝑢 2
Friction loss due to pipe length: 𝑒𝑓 =
2𝑚
ƒ = friction factor
L = length of pipe
m = hydraulic mean depth = cross-sectional area/wetted perimeter

For a circular section pipe flowing full: 𝑑 4 𝐿𝑓 𝑢 2


𝑚= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 = ×
4 𝑑 2

4 𝐿𝑓 𝑢 2
The pressure drop due to friction: ∆ 𝑝= 𝜌 𝑒 𝑓 =𝜌 ×
𝑑 2
Example 5.1:
A pipeline of constant diameter and 435 m length conveys water from a
reservoir to a turbine situated 100 m below the reservoir level as shown. The
velocity of flow through the pipeline is 2.0 m/s and the energy loss due to
friction in the pipeline is 203 J/kg. The water leaves the turbine at atmospheric
pressure (100 kN/m2) and with negligible velocity. Assuming an efficiency of
80% for the turbine, determine:
Friction loss due to pipe length:

a). Pipeline diameter


b). Pressure at entry to turbine
c). Turbine power output (ƒ = 0.035)
Example 5.2:
A pump delivers 15 kg/s water from an open tank to another tank, 30m above
the water level of the first tank.
a). Given that the friction losses are estimated to be 35 J/kg and the pump has
an efficiency of 85%, determine the input power to the pump
b). Determine the pressure at inlet to the pump given that the suction pipe has
diameter of 50 mm and energy losses of 16 J/kg.
patm = 100 kN/m2 and ρw = 103 kg/m3
Example 5.3:
A pumping system is shown. The storage tank is filled in 20 minutes with oil
of relative density 0.8, by passing it through a pipe AB, 50mm in diameter and
of length 50m.
Neglecting all losses except friction, determine the power of the pump
required assuming the pump has an efficiency of 60%. (take friction factor, ƒ
= 0.005)
Turbulent Flow in Circular Pipes
Darcy equation for energy loss in circular pipes with turbulent flow:

4 𝑓𝐿 𝑢 2
𝐸𝑓 = ×
𝑑 2

ƒ = coefficient known as the friction factor (dimensionless)


L = length of pipe, m
d = diameter of pipe, m
U = mean velocity, m/s
Turbulent Flow in Circular Pipes
Example 6.1:
Water flows at a rate of 1.5kg/s in a pipeline of diameter
a). 30mm
b). 60mm

Pipe length 100m


Friction factor f=0.005

Find the pressure change.


Turbulent Flow in Circular Pipes
Example 6.2
Water flows from an open reservoir to a turbine by means of a pipeline which
is 1000m in length; the vertical drop being 200m. The velocity of flow in the
pipeline is 5m/s and the energy lost due to friction is 200J/kg. Given that the
water leaves the turbine at atmospheric pressure and with negligible velocity,
calculate:
a). Internal diameter of the pipeline
b). Turbine output power assuming an efficiency of 70% for the turbine

(take ƒ = 0.005)
Reynolds and friction
Reynolds found that it is not the absolute size of bumps on pipe surface that
constitute roughness, but the size of bumps in relation to the diameter of the
pipe. Relative roughness approximates k/d, where k is average height of
surface bumps and d is pipe diameter:
Stanton and Nikuradse
Stanton and Nikuradse were researchers who carried out many experiments on
pipes of various diameters and materials and with a range of fluids.

Nikuradse used sand to roughen walls of pipes so that the relative


roughness could be deduced.
Pipe Friction (Moody or Fanning) Chart
Reynolds and friction
Example 6.3:
Using the friction chart determine the friction factor when Re = 2 X 10 4 for:
a). A smooth pipe
b). A pipe of roughness 0.002
c). If the flow were laminar and ƒ = 0.01 what would be Re?
Laminar sub-layer and smooth flow
In the smooth zone the sub-layer is thick enough to cover all irregularities of
the surface, so they have no effect on flow. As Re decreases the thickness of
the sub-layer decreases and bumps protrude, causing energy loss and

ef ∝ um
In the complete turbulence rough zone viscous effects are negligible, and
energy loss
ef ∝ um2
and ƒ is constant.

Both effects are present in the transition zone due to the partial protrusion of
bumps
Nikuradse works for uniform roughness, which is not true in practice and
transition zone effects will actually be greater.
Transition zone
This is an important zone as nearly all commercial pipes, especially when
new, operate within it.
Colebrook and White did experiments with commercial pipes at high Re
where
ƒ ∝ Re
This result compares with Nikuradse and gives a uniform sand grain k for a
pipe and an equivalent size grain, e.g 0.26mm for uncoated cast iron pipe.

Moody used equivalent grain sizes and the Moody diagram is now considered
to be the standard best means for predicting ƒ in civil engineering.
Transition zone
Turbulent flow
In turbulent flow random motion perpendicular to the wall dies out close to
wall, thus creating a very thin layer of fluid – the laminar sub-layer. At higher
Re a more intense random perpendicular motion reduces the thickness of the
laminar sub-layer and surface irregularities generate eddies. These cause
kinetic energy losses proportional to u2. So the pressure loss for turbulent flow
is proportional to the square of the velocity.
For smooth pipes the laminar sub-layer is thick enough to completely cover
the surface irregularities, which will have no effect on the main flow and so
all curves coincide.
As Re increases the laminar sub-layer becomes thinner and surface
irregularities protrude into the main flow. The Rougher the pipe – the lower
the Re that this occurs at.
Pressure loss during laminar flow in a pipe
The shear stress in a pipe τw is almost impossible to measure. But for laminar
flow it is possible to calculate a theoretical value for a given velocity, fluid
and pipe dimension.
In laminar flow the paths of individual particles of fluid do not cross, so the
flow may be considered as a series of concentric cylinders sliding over each
other - rather like the cylinders of a collapsible pocket telescope.

The system is in equilibrium, so the shearing forces on the cylinder equal the
pressure forces.

By Newton’s law of viscosity:

𝜇 𝑑𝑢
𝜏=
𝑑𝑦
Pressure loss during laminar flow in a pipe
Measuring from the pipe centre (usual convention) then change the sign and
replace y with r distance from the centre, giving:
−𝜇 𝑑𝑢
𝜏=
𝑑𝑟
this is a parabolic profile (of the form y = ax2 + b ) so the velocity profile in
the pipe looks similar to the figure below:

∆ 𝑝 𝑑2 ∆ 𝑝 𝜋 𝑑4
𝑄= ×
32𝜇 𝐿 128 𝜇 𝐿
Losses due to fittings and bends, etc. h = K(u2/2g)
:
Fluid momentum

page 118
Newton’s Second Law of Motion
Rate of change of momentum is proportional to impressed force

Rate of change of momentum=

Where a = acceleration.
Momentum Equation

Change of momentum = net force on fluid

𝑚˙ (𝑢2 −𝑢1 )= 𝑝1 𝐴1+∫ 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑑𝐴−𝑝2 𝐴2


∫psinαdA is the force F exerted on the fluid by the boundary.

Pressures p1 and p2 are absolute values.


Application of forces on pipe bends
2

Applying momentum equation:


𝐹 𝑥 =( 𝑚
˙ 𝑢2 +𝑝 2 𝐴2 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 2 − ( 𝑚𝑢
˙ 1+𝑝 1 𝐴1 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 1
𝐹 𝑦 =( 𝑚
˙ 𝑢2 +𝑝 2 𝐴2 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 2 − ( 𝑚
˙ 𝑢1 +𝑝 1 𝐴1 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1

These equations give components in x and y


directions of force ON THE FLUID.
Application of forces on pipe bends
The resultant forces of the fluid ON THE BEND is equal and opposite in
direction to the resultant of Fx and Fy, i.e.

Resultant force on fluid (by Pythagoras)

Then resultant force of fluid on bend is:


Momentum and two dimensional flow

Consider the two dimensional system in the figure:


𝐹 𝑥 =𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐h𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐹 𝑥 =𝑚 ( 𝑢2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 2 −𝑢 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 1 )=𝑚 ( 𝑢2 𝑋 −𝑢1 𝑋 )

𝐹 𝑦 =𝑚 ( 𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2 −𝑢1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 ) =𝑚 ( 𝑢2 𝑦 −𝑢1 𝑦 )


The resultant force by combining these vectorially:

𝐹 𝑅 =√ 𝐹 𝑥 + 𝐹 𝑦
2 2
Momentum and two dimensional flow

And the angle which this force acts at is


given by:
Φ

For a three-dimensional (x, y, z) system we then have an extra force to


calculate and resolve in the z-direction. This is considered in exactly the
same way.

Total force exerted on fluid = rate of


change of momentum through the control
volume:
Momentum and two dimensional flow
Total force exerted on fluid = rate of change of momentum through the control
volume:

Remember that we are working with vectors so F is in the direction of the


velocity. This force is made up of three components:

FR = Force exerted on the fluid by any solid body touching the control
volume
FB = Force exerted on the fluid body (e.g. gravity)
FP = Force exerted on the fluid by fluid pressure outside the control volume
𝐹 𝑇 =𝐹 𝑅 +𝐹 𝐵 +𝐹 𝑃
Momentum and two dimensional flow
Example 7.1:
Determine the resultant force and angle of action on a control volume of fluid
in a 2-dimensional system with inlet and outlet flows of 5 and 8 m/s
respectively and inlet and outlet angles 25° and 40° respectively. The relative
density of the fluid is 0.87 and the cross-sectional area at the inlet is 20 m 2.
Application of the momentum equation – Force due
to flow around a pipe bend

A control volume with faces at the inlet and


outlet of the bend and encompassing the pipe walls
Flow round a pipe bend of constant cross-section

Consider a pipe bend with a constant cross section lying in the


horizontal plane and turning through an angle of θ.
Steps in Analysis:
Draw a control volume
Decide on co-ordinate axis system
Calculate the total force
Calculate the pressure force
Calculate the body force
Calculate the resultant force
Application of the momentum equation – Force due
to flow around a pipe bend
• Calculate the total force

In the x-direction: In the y-direction:


𝐹 𝑇𝑥=𝜌 𝑄 ( 𝑢 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 𝑢1 ) 𝐹 𝑇𝑦 =𝜌𝑄𝑢 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

• Calculate the body force


There are no body forces in the x or y directions. The only body force is
that exerted by gravity (which acts into the paper in this example – so 0
as gravity only acts downward!)

Calculate the resultant force


Application of the momentum equation – Force due
to flow around a pipe bend
Example 7.2:
The resultant force on a bend is 20 kN acting at 5° to the horizontal. Inlet and
outlet velocities are 7 and 4 m/s respectively and inlet and outlet angles 20° and
35° respectively.
a). What is the horizontal force on and

b). discharge through the bend?


(fluid density is 103 kg/m3)
Force on a pipe nozzle

Force on the nozzle at the outlet of a pipe. Because the fluid is contracted at
the nozzle forces are induced in the nozzle. Anything holding the nozzle (e.g. a
fireman) must be strong enough to withstand these forces.

The analysis takes the same procedure as above


Force on a pipe nozzle
Example 7.3:
What is the resultant force on a pipe nozzle of area 0.1m2 attached to a pipe of
area 0.3m2/ when discharging 2.5m3/s of fluid ?(ρw = 2 x103 kg/m3)
Impact of a jet on a plane

A perpendicular jet hitting a plane


We will first consider a jet hitting a flat plate (a plane) at an angle of 90o, as
shown in the figure above. We want to find the reaction force of the plate i.e.
the force the plate will have to apply to stay in the same position.

The analysis takes the same procedure as above


Impact of a jet on a plane
Example 7.4:
Determine the resultant force on a T-junction when the input velocity of water
on it is 5m/s and the outlet velocities are 3m/s. Take discharge as 30m3/s (ρw =
103 kg/m3)
Force on a curved vane

This case is similar to that of a pipe, but the analysis is simpler because the
pressures are equal - atmospheric, and both the cross-section and velocities (in
the direction of flow) remain constant. The jet, vane and co-ordinate direction are
arranged as in the figure left.
Force on a curved vane
Example 7.5:
Calculate the force on a curved vane and angle of application when water
discharge is 10m3/s and cross-sectional area of the jet is 2m2. Outlet angle is 45°
and volume of fluid on vane is 50m3
Thermodynamics

page 136
Introduction

The direct energy conversion flows to and from


mechanical and electrical energy to stored energy.
Introduction

Conversion processes involving thermal energy in the


form of heat, usually from combustion of a fuel. All are
poor at converting thermal energy to mechanical energy
and the bulk of the initial energy is wasted.
Introduction

• Heat
• Work
Properties of a System
Properties of a system define the system and effectively DEFINE the STATE of
the system. The properties of most engineering and scientific interest are:

• Pressure, p (N/m2)
• Temperature and thermodynamic temperature, T (K)
• Specific volume, ν = 1/ρ (m3/kg)
• Internal energy, u (J/kg)
• Enthalpy, h (J/kg)
• Entropy, s (J/kgK)
Properties of a System
Pressure

Pressure indicates how closely packed molecules are within system.


The pressure p is the ratio of the force exerted F to the perpendicular area A upon
which the force is applied.

P = F/A
Properties of a System
Specific Volume
Specific volume essentially describes the same property as density.

They are related by: ν = 1/ρ


In thermodynamics we use the property value of specific volume, ν (unlike fluid
mechanics where we use ρ)
Properties of a System
Internal energy

Internal energy gives the amount of energy bound up within a substance due to
its temperature and pressure, e.g. steam at high temperature and pressure has
high internal energy and therefore its capacity to do work is high
Internal energy is fundamentally linked to the First Law of Thermodynamics and
is very useful in problems associated with closed systems

Units: u = J/kg
Properties of a System
Enthalpy

Enthalpy is very closely linked to internal energy. It also represents energy bound
up within the system due to its temperature and pressure and capacity for doing
work.

Units: h = J/kg, H = J
Properties of a System
Entropy

Entropy is extremely difficult to understand and is associated with the 2nd Law
of Thermodynamics.
So we use it as a device to solve problems by employing simple rules:

If a process is ADIABATIC ( heat transfer is zero) and is REVERSIBLE (as


perfect as is possible) then the process must be ISENTROPIC (Δs = 0) and so

∆ 𝑠=𝑠 2 − 𝑠1=0
Properties of a System
Extensive vs Intensive properties

For an Extensive property – its total value depends upon the extent of the system
(how many kg), i.e. volume, internal energy, enthalpy, entropy.

For an Intensive property – its value is independent of the extent of the system,
i.e. pressure and temperature.
First Law of Thermodynamics

The 1st Law of Thermodynamics concerns the conservation of energy and how
heat and work relate to one another. The Law describes what must apply to a
cyclic process = a process that returns exactly to start point.
First Law of Thermodynamics

Closed system

dQ = dW

1st Law is developed by considering a closed system where:


dQ = small heat transfer
dW = small work transfer
1∫2 dQ = sum all heat transfers between states 1 and 2
1∫2 dW = sum all work transfers between states 1 and 2

If this applies for a cyclic process, then for any process which is NOT a cyclic
process we can write:
1∫2 (dQ – dW) ≠ 0
First Law of Thermodynamics

Integrating this form of the expression gives the result for a complete process
(and noting that ∫dQ equals Q for the process):

Q = ΔU + W
First Law of Thermodynamics

Example 8.1:
What are the specific volume, specific energy, specific internal energy and
specific enthalpy of superheated steam when:
a. Pressure is 3 MPa and temperature is 400°C
b. Pressure is 3 MPa and temperature is 420°C
c. Pressure is 3.3 MPa and temperature is 400°C
First Law of Thermodynamics

Example 8.2:
A closed system contains 1 kg of steam at 1 MN/m2 pressure and temperature
400°C. The system undergoes a process in which 100 kJ of heat is given to the
system and 10 kJ of work is done by the system.
a. What is the initial internal energy?
b. What is the final internal energy?
c. If the process occurs at constant pressure, what is the final temperature?
First Law of Thermodynamics

Example 8.3:
A container contains 6.7 kg of steam at 2 bar and 220°C. A process occurs in
which the system loses 500 kJ of heat. The final pressure and temperature are 8
bar and 470°C. Determine:
a. The initial and final values of internal energy
b. The total work done
Thermodynamic Work and Reversibility

Shaft work

Shaft work occurs when a mixer passes through a system


boundary and produces shearing or mixing forces within
the boundary. The work transfer to the system is
determined from the work put into the shaft
Thermodynamic Work and Reversibility

Displacement work

In mechanics we calculate work as a force multiplied by the distance it moves in


the direction of the force. Consider a system defined by a piston in a gas
cylinder.

Force on piston

and work done by moving distance dL is:

δW = pAdL
Thermodynamic Work and Reversibility

But AdL = dV so total work done:

Work is not a property. The value for work does not depend
on the end states of 1 and 2. In fact a quick look at the
diagram shows that there are an infinite number of ways of
passing from 1 to 2.
The value for work (area under curve) is clearly different for
each of these routes. A system only does displacement work
when there is movement of the system boundary
Reversibility and Irreversibility
Reversibility

Equation W = ∫pdV is only true if the work is perfect or


‘reversible’ this means:

• The system must be in a state of equilibrium (i.e.


pressure constant throughout system) at each
intermediate point as the process passes between its
initial and final states
• Since a change of state is occurring ~ state of quasi-
equilibrium
• OK for many processes, as:

teq << tprocess


Reversibility and Irreversibility
Irreversibility

Most processes are not perfect (reversible) and are said to be irreversible.
Despite this equation W = ∫pdV is sufficiently valid to give the value for
displacement work in most instances of engineering significance.
Work Transfer in a Cyclic Process

The work transferred 1 - 2 (reversible):

W12 = Area under the pressure/ volume curve (3/4 – 1/2)

i.e. If a machine undergoes a repeated cycle of events reversibly, the work


transferred in each machine cycle is equivalent to the area enclosed by the cycle
on the pressure/volume chart.
Work Transfer in a Cyclic Process
Non-flow processes

Constant volume dV=0 =0

Constant pressure dp=0

If both pressure and temperature vary


Class Example 9.1
It is proposed to build a cylinder mechanism in which fluid undergo the
following four non-flow processes and complete a cycle:
1. State 1- 2 Constant pressure expansion at a pressure of 1 MPa from a volume
of 0.02 m3 to a volume of 0.09 m3
2. State 2 -3 Constant volume drop in pressure to a pressure of 0.1 MPa
3. State 3 – 4 Constant pressure compression at a pressure of 0.1 MPa from a
volume of 0.09 m3 to a volume of 0.02 m3
4. State 3 – 4 Constant volume rise in pressure to the initial state where
pressure is 1 MPa.
a. Sketch the cycle on a graph of fluid pressure against volume
b. Determine the work transfer in each non-flow process
c. Calculate the net work transfer when the fluid completes one cycle

page 160
The First Law applied to Open Systems

In a closed system there is no flow in or out if it. The system is comprised of the
same constituents at all times, i.e. energy is conserved.

The principle of the 1st Law (i.e. energy conservation) can usefully be extended
to a system where flow is allowed into and out of the system, i.e. an open
system.
Control Volume

The control volume effectively encloses the machine or device of interest and
flow is allowed in and out. The 1st Law is applied to a fixed mass of fluid
(comprising the system) as it passes between the inlet and outlet of the control
volume.
Steady flow energy equation

By assuming the flow to be steady, which implies equal mass flow into and out
of the system and therefore no build up of mass within the control volume, the
steady flow energy equation (SFEE) is derived:
𝑣 12 𝑄 𝑊 𝑣 2
2
h1 + +𝑔𝑧 1+ − =h2 + +𝑔𝑧 2
2 𝑚 𝑚 2
h = enthalpy in this case!!!
Special Cases for the Use of SFEE

Turbine and compressor

Heat transfer (Q) and difference in potential (gz) energy terms are normally
negligible, i.e. z1 = z2

𝑣 12 𝑄 𝑊 𝑣 2
2
h1 + +𝑔𝑧 1+ − =h2 + +𝑔𝑧 2
2 𝑚 𝑚 2
Special Cases for the Use of SFEE

Boiler and heater

Work term (W) and difference in potential (gz) energy terms are normally
negligible, i.e. z1 = z2

𝑣 12 𝑄 𝑊 𝑣 2
2
h1 + +𝑔𝑧 1+ − =h2 + +𝑔𝑧 2
2 𝑚 𝑚 2
Special Cases for the Use of SFEE

Nozzle

Work (W), heat transfer (Q) and difference in potential (gz) energy terms are
normally negligible,
𝑣 12 𝑄 𝑊 𝑣 2
2
h1 + +𝑔𝑧 1+ − =h2 + +𝑔𝑧 2
2 𝑚 𝑚 2

Frequently v1 << v2

𝑣 22=2 ( h 1 − h2 )
Special Cases for the Use of SFEE

𝑣 12 𝑄 𝑊 𝑣 2
2
h1 + +𝑔𝑧 1+ − =h2 + 𝑔𝑧 2
2 𝑚 𝑚 2

( h1 =h2 )
The Continuity Equation
The SFEE is an equation based on the principle of conservation of energy in
an open system. The Continuity equation is based on the principle of
conservation of mass in steady flow through an open system

Remember from fluids:


Relationship between Internal Energy and Enthalpy
The definition of the 1st Law introduced the property of internal energy.
Application of 1st Law to open systems introduced the property of enthalpy.
Internal energy and enthalpy are related by:

This equation is typical of one that links property values at a state point and its
validity does not depend on any processes that might be undertaken. The
equation is always true for a pure substance, by definition.

Differentiation of h = u + pν gives useful results:

dh = du + pdν + νdp
Use of h = u + pν in First Law
1st Law for closed system: dQ = du + dW

If dW is reversible displacement work then dW = pdν

So dQ = du + pdν

Using equation a: dh = du + pdν + νdp >> dQ = dh – νdp

Both these forms of 1st Law are useful.


Class Example 10.1
The p-V-U relationship for a certain gas is given by the equation:
U = 831 + 2pV
Where U is in joules, p is in MN/m2 and V is in m3. Find the work done (W)
by and the heat received (Q) by this gas in the following changes, in which all
work is done in a slowly moving piston:

From p1 V1 to p2 V2
a. Constant volume 1 1 2 1
b. Constant pressure 1 2 1 4
c. Constant pV product 1 3 2 3/2
d. Find the work done in a different kind of process between the same end
states as in c. if the heat lost is 10 kJ.
Class example 10.2
A steam turbine receives a a steam flow of 5000 kg/hour and delivers 500 kW.
The heat loss (Q) and turbine bearing loss are negligible. Find the change in
enthalpy per kg of steam across the turbine:

a. If the changes of kinetic energy and elevation between entrance and exit
are negligible

b. If the flow velocities at entrance and exit are respectively 50 and 300 m/s,
and the inlet pipe is 5m above the exhaust.
Class example 10.3
Steam at 1 MN/m2 and 300°C approaches a horizontal nozzle through a
passage of very large cross-section. Its pressure and temperature at outlet from
the nozzle are 0.5 MN/m2 and 250°C. Neglecting heat loss from the nozzle,
find:

a. The velocity at the outlet


b. The area of the outlet cross-section if the flowrate is 5 kg/s
Class example 10.4

10 kg/s of steam at 4 MN/m2 and 500°C enters a horizontal pipe of cross-


sectional area 100 cm2 and leaves at 2 MN/m2 and 450°C. Find the rate of
heat exchange with the surroundings.
Properties of Pure Substances
Up to now no consideration has been given to what substance is passing
through the control volume. We may have assumed a gas and homogeneity. To
clarify we need to introduce the concept of a pure substance and its phases.

Pure substance
Pure substance is matter of a single chemical composition, e.g. water. If the
whole system contains only water then it is not important if it is in the ice,
water or steam phase; it can be considered as pure.
Properties of Pure Substances
Phases of a Pure Substance

A pure substance can be a solid, liquid or gas. There is a sharp distinction


between phases, as the properties of one phase are decidedly different from
those of another phase.

When work or heat is transferred to a pure substance, this will at some point
produce a phase change, e.g. when water is heated, some of the water will turn
to gas (water vapour or steam) when a sufficiently high temperature is
reached.

Because of the importance of water, the three phase have unique names, solid
phase = ice, liquid phase = water and gaseous phase = steam.
For most pure substances, the word solid, liquid or gas would be appended to
the substance name as appropriate.
Properties of Pure Substances
Saturated properties of a pure substance

The saturation temperature is the temperature of water when liquid-


vapour phase change occurs, i.e. water boils. Its value depends on
pressure. During boiling, the temperature of water does not change
until it has all changed phase. All heat added during this phase
transition goes into forcing the water to change to the vapour phase.

Point a - Water at this point is called a subcooled liquid because its


temperature is less than its saturation temperature for this pressure.
Point b - Saturated liquid = highest temperature it can remain a
liquid.
Point c - If more heat is added, some of liquid changes to vapour
and a mixture of liquid and gas occurs = wet vapour.
Point d - All water exists as saturated vapour.
Point e - Any addition of heat to the saturated vapour results in
vapour being superheated = superheated vapour . The vapour then
has a temperature greater than saturation temperature.
Properties of Pure Substances
Critical properties of a pure substance
If the above procedure is repeated for a range of pressures, points
equivalent to point b for saturated liquid can be joined up to form a
line = the saturated liquid line.

Similarly for point d = saturated vapour line

The lines converge at the critical point. Here there is a unique


temperature and pressure for the substance, i.e. critical temperature
and critical pressure.
Properties of Pure Substances
What happens above the critical point
At pressures higher than critical pressure the liquid could be heated
from a low temperature to a high temperature without any
discernible phase change (properties of liquid and vapour phase
blend into one another)

At temperatures greater than critical temperature, pressure may be


increased to a very high value without liquefaction.
Properties of Pure Substances
Dryness Fraction and generalised extensive
property of a wet vapour

Thermodynamic tables give the property values for saturated liquid


and vapour conditions. If the percentage of vapour in the wet phase
(dryness fraction) is known, it is possible to get the actual property
value for the wet vapour from tables.

The dryness fraction, x, is an important concept as a range of


machines have a working fluid which, for at least part of machine
cycle, is a wet vapour e.g. fridge.

𝑟 =𝑟 𝑓 +𝑥 ( 𝑟 𝑔 −𝑟 𝑓 )

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑥=
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟
Properties of Pure Substances
Three-dimensional p-V-T surface
For reference only, note that water is an unusual substance in that it
expands on freezing (ice floats). This produces a strange ‘kink’ in
the p-V-T surface. This is not an issue for us as it is in the region we
are not studying,. i.e. liquid-solid phase change.
Properties of Pure Substances
Rankine Cycle

Rankine cycle is a reversible steam power plant cycle (no losses due to irreversibility).

Stage 1 Water at low temperature and pressure is raised to boiler pressure by a feed pump and
passed into the boiler

Stage 2 Heat is transferred to water in a boiler at high pressure to produce high temperature,
superheated steam. The steam has lots of energy due to its high temperature and pressure (i.e. high
value of enthalpy, or capacity to do work, h).

Stage 3 The steam passes through a turbine in which energy is effectively extracted from the steam
to produce work, i.e. to turn a turbine shaft and blade arrangement, which in turn operates a
generator to produce electricity. On passing through the turbine the pressure drops to close to
atmospheric pressure.

Stage 4 Rather than letting the steam condense to atmosphere, it is condensed to water in a
condenser (e.g. a cooling tower), ready to be repressurised and go round the cycle again.
Properties of Pure Substances
Rankine cycle efficiency
Efficiency is a measure of how much of the input heat can be converted into work – usually < 40%!!
This is due to thermodynamic limitations on the possibilities of converting heat to work.

Efficiency
η=

But WP<<<WT so η=
Properties of Pure Substances
Rankine cycle on a T- s property diagram

Flow through the turbine and feed pump are reversible and
adiabatic (Q=0). This means that there is no change of
entropy, s, through either of these devices (Δs = 0). On a T-s
diagram, the processes in the turbine and feed pump appear
as vertical lines. This information is extremely useful for
solving Rankine cycle problems.
Properties of Pure Substances
Calculations of Rankine performance
To analyse the cycle, the SFEE should be applied to each
device to permit calculations of heat and work:

𝑣 12 𝑄 𝑊 𝑣 22
h1 + +𝑔 𝑧 1 + − =h2 + +𝑔 𝑧 2
2 𝑚 𝑚 2
We always assume that kinetic and potential energy terms
are negligible and that the turbine and feed pump are
adiabatic. This gives:

• Turbine: W/m = hin – hout = -ΔhT But W/m is negligible, so Δh is negligible >> h in =
• Condenser: Q/m = hin – hout = -ΔhC hout
• Feed pump: W/m = hout – hin = ΔhP 𝑊 𝑇 − Δ h T    h3 −h 4
• Boiler: Q/m = hout – hin = ΔhB η= = =
𝑄𝐵 Δ h B   h3 −h 2
Properties of Pure Substances
Comments on heat engines
A Rankine steam power plant is a type of heat engine. A working fluid (steam) is taken through a
cyclic process and some heat input is converted into work. There is always some heat rejected from
such a cycle.

Example 11.1:
A reversible Rankine steam power plant operates with a boiler pressure of 15 bar and a condenser
pressure of 1 bar. Both the turbine and the feed pump operate adiabatically and the work required by
the feed pump is negligible. The temperature of the turbine inlet is 450°C.
a. Sketch the cycle on a T-s diagram
b. Determine the enthalpy at the main 4 state points in the cycle
c. Determine the thermal efficiency of the plant
d. Determine the temperature at turbine outlet
Properties of Pure Substances
Real Rankine Cycle
The real Rankine cycle will have frictional effects in all components (irreversibilities). These effects
will cause efficiency to drop.

The reversible (perfect) cycle is 1,2,3,4

Bu there are losses in the real cycle:

2 - 3’ = pressure drop in boiler


3’ - 4’ = frictional effects in turbine
4’ - 1 = pressure drop in condenser.
Properties of Pure Substances
Example 11.2:
A Rankine steam power plant operates with a boiler pressure of 30 bar and condenser pressure of 1
bar. All aspects of the cycle are reversible except for the turbine which has an isentropic efficiency of
85%. Both the turbine and the feed pump operate adiabatically and the work required by the feed
pump is negligible. The temperature at the turbine inlet is 600°C.
a. Sketch the cycle on a T-s diagram
b. Determine the enthalpy at the main 4 state points in the cycle
c. Determine the thermal efficiency of the plant
d. Determine the temperature at turbine outlet
Properties of Pure Substances
Adiabatic efficiency of turbines and compressors
Reversible, adiabatic turbines and compressors are isentropic (Δ. The lines for these processes appear
vertical on a T-s diagram (i.e. no change in s). However, irreversible, adiabatic turbines and
compressors always exhibit a rise in entropy. This can be established by studying the 2nd Law of
Thermodynamics.
Properties of Pure Substances
Turbines (adiabatic)
Consider two turbines operating between the same pressures. One is perfect (reversible, adiabatic) and
the other is an actual turbine.

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 ∆ h𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 h 1 − h2


𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = = =
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 ∆ h𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 h1 −h 2 𝑠
Properties of Pure Substances
Example 11.3a:
A steam turbine operates between an inlet pressure of 20 bar and an outlet pressure of 10 bar. The
turbine inlet temperature is 600°C and the turbine adiabatic efficiency is 85%. Using steam tables
determine:

i. The enthalpy at turbine outlet


ii. The temperature at turbine outlet
iii. The power output from the turbine if the steam flow rate is 4.6 kg/s.

Example 11.3b:
Assume the steam turbine in 3a is part of a steam Rankine cycle which is fully reversible except for
the turbine. The working fluid at entry to the feed pump is saturated liquid and the feed pump work
requirement is negligible.

i. Sketch the cycle on a T-s diagram


ii. Determine the cycle efficiency
Properties of Pure Substances
Example 11.4:
A Rankine steam power plant operates with a boiler pressure of 40 bar and a condenser pressure of 1
bar. All aspects of the cycle are reversible except for the turbine. The temperatures measured at turbine
inlet and outlet are 600°C and 145°C respectively. The conditions at entry to the feed pump are that of
saturated liquid and the work required by the feed pump is negligible. Using thermodynamic property
tables as necessary:

a. Sketch the cycle on a T-s diagram


b. Determine the enthalpy at the main 4 state points in the cycle
c. Determine the thermal efficiency of the plant
d. Determine the adiabatic efficiency of the turbine
Properties of Pure Substances
Compressors (adiabatic)
Consider two compressors operating between the same pressures and with the same inlet conditions.
One is perfect (reversible, adiabatic) and the other is an actual compressor

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 ∆ h𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 h 2 − h1


𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = = =
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 ∆ h𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 h 𝑠 2 − h1
Properties of Pure Substances
Example 11.5a:
A steady flow steam power plant operates with a boiler pressure of 15 bar and a condenser pressure of
50 kN/m2. The turbine, which has an isentropic efficiency of 75%, receives superheated steam at a
temperature of 600°C and has a power output of 50MW. The feed pump has a negligible work
requirement and receives saturated water from the condenser.
Determine, using thermodynamic tables or the h-s chart provided:

i. The enthalpy at turbine outlet


ii. The mass flow rate through the turbine
iii. The thermal efficiency of the power plant

Example 11.5b:
The efficiency calculated in 5a above is disappointingly low. Explain why this is so, making reference
to the 2nd Law of thermodynamics

Example 11.5c:
Discuss:
i. Ways by which the cycle in 5a can be improved
ii. Alternative schemes for utilising the heat energy more effectively
Properties of Pure Substances
Answer 11.3c:

The efficiency of the cycle can be improved by increasing T1 i.e. increasing driving force. This is
done by increasing the boiler pressure and increasing the amount of superheat out of the boiler. There
are other techniques, such as reheat, which help to get the average temperature of heat reception up.

An additional approach could be to use low grade waste heat for district heating or for process heat,
where possible. Heat is then not wasted and instead of calculating η we calculate an energy utilisation
factor.
Ideal gases and Perfect gases
Ideal gas and specific heat
Gases have a very special part to play in thermodynamics. A number of very important cyclic
processes have:
• A gas as the working fluid (Joule gas turbine cycle, Otto petrol engine cycle, Diesel engine cycle)
or
• A condensable gas as the working fluid (Rankine steam power cycle, refrigeration cycle)

The flow of gases is also clearly a major part of the study of fluid dynamics and aerodynamics.
Fortunately the properties of gases are very often related to one another in a very simple way.
Ideal gases and Perfect gases
Ideal gas
Experiments by Boyle and Charise demonstrated that many gases at typical temperatures and
pressures obey a simple relationship:

𝑝𝑣= 𝑅𝑇
Where R is a constant for the gas and ν is specific volume.

A gas obeying this relationship is termed an ideal gas. Many gases approximate this behaviour and
might therefore for convenience be assumed to be ideal.
For a process 1-2 involving an ideal gas we can write:

𝑝1 𝑣 1 𝑝 2 𝑣 2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
If in addition we have a process where either pressure, volume or temperature is constant we get
further simplification
Ideal gases and Perfect gases
Universal gas constant
The gas constant of a particular gas can be determined for an ideal gas if the molecular weight is
known. We can rewrite the gas law for a fixed mass m of fluid in a volume V:

𝑝𝑉 =𝑚𝑅𝑇
Avogadro determined that if we have a mass of gas equal to the molecular weight in kg (M), a
pressure of 1 atmosphere (po), a temperature of 0°C (T), then:

𝑉 =22.4 𝑚 3(𝑉 𝑜 𝑜𝑟 𝑡h𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒)


These conditions are referred to as standard temperature and pressure. Substituting these values in
above equation gives a product MR, which is constant for all ideal gases:

𝑝𝑜 𝑉 𝑜 𝑘𝐽
=𝑀𝑅=𝑅=8.3143
𝑇𝑜 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙 . 𝐾
Ȓ is known as the Universal Gas Constant. We can always use Ȓ and M to get the gas constant R for
the gas of interest.
Ideal gases and Perfect gases
Specific heats
Specific heats relate heat input to rise in temperature. In thermodynamics there are two definitions of
specific heat relating energy terms to rise in temperature:
• enthalpy and
• internal energy

These are complex, but made simpler depending upon simplifying assumptions that can be made for a
given system.
Ideal gases and Perfect gases
Definitions of specific heat for any pure substance
Specific heat at constant pressure:

𝐶𝑝=
𝑑h
𝑑𝑇( ) 𝑝
The relationship between enthalpy and temperature for a process occurring at constant pressure. Cp
may not be constant.
Specific heat at constant volume:

𝐶𝑉 = ( )
𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑇 𝑣

The relationship between internal energy and temperature for a process occurring at constant volume,
Cv may not be constant.
Ideal gases and Perfect gases
Definitions of specific heat for a semi-perfect gas
Joule and Thompson conducted experiments that showed for most gases (called semi-perfect gases)
that:

„Changes in enthalpy and internal energy depend on changes in temperature only”

This give simpler equations:

𝑑h 𝑑𝑢
𝐶𝑝= 𝐶𝑣=
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇

NB: Cv and Cp are not necessarily constant.


Ideal gases and Perfect gases
Definitions of specific heat for a perfect gas
For a perfect gas values of Cp and Cv are constant. This allows a simple integration of the specific
heat relationships:

h2 −h 1=𝐶 𝑝 ( 𝑇 2 −𝑇 1)

𝑢2 −𝑢1=𝐶 𝑣 ( 𝑇 2 −𝑇 1)
Ideal gases and Perfect gases
Ratio of specific heats, γ
The ratio of specific heats appears in a number of thermodynamic equations and is given the symbol

𝐶𝑝
𝛾=
𝐶𝑣

For a perfect gas γ is a constant.


Ideal gases and Perfect gases
Relationship between R, Cp and Cv for an ideal gas
For any pure substance: h = u + pν

For an ideal gas: h = u + RT

Differentiate: dh = du + RdT

For a semi-perfect or perfect gas:


dh = CpdT and du = CvdT
So CpdT = CvdT + RdT
Cp = Cv + R
Or R = Cp – Cv
Ideal gases and Perfect gases
Relationship between R, Cp and Cv for an ideal gas
For any pure substance: h = u + pν

For an ideal gas: h = u + RT

Differentiate: dh = du + RdT

For a semi-perfect or perfect gas:


dh = CpdT and du = CvdT
So CpdT = CvdT + RdT
Cp = Cv + R
Or R = Cp – Cv

NB: applies to a semi-perfect or perfect ideal gas, i.e. Cp and Cv may not be constant in reality.
Ideal gases and Perfect gases

Example 12.1:
Determine the volume occupied by 0.07 kg air at a pressure of 130 kN/m 2 and a
temperature of 18°C. Take R (air) = 0.287 kJ/kgK
Ideal gases and Perfect gases
Non-flow processes involving perfect gases
A perfect gas is a particular type of ideal gas for which the following formulae are true:

pν = RT Δh = CpΔT Δu = CvΔT

Cp and Cv are constants R = Cp – Cv

Δ implies difference for a process 1-2 i.e. Δh = h1 – h2 reality.

The simple nature of these formulae allows calculations of heat transfer and work for many processes
to be expressed in simple terms. It also permits changes in one property to be related with little
difficulty to changes in another property for which we have data. It is most convenient to express all
equations in specific terms (per kg gas). To get the actual change, multiply the quantity by the mass of
gas in the system, m.
Ideal gases and Perfect gases
Constant volume process
Using 1st Law Q = Δu + W (1st Law in integrated form)

V is constant, so dV = 0, pdV = 0, W = 0

And Q = Δu = CvΔT

For process 1-2: Q = Cv(T2 – T1)


𝑝 1 𝑝2
Since V constant, equation for an ideal gas gives: =
𝑇1 𝑇2

So we can rewrite (a) as: ( 𝑇 2 −1 ) ( 𝑝 2 −1 )


𝑄=𝐶 𝑣 𝑇 1 =𝐶 𝑣 𝑇 1
𝑇1 𝑝1
So we can express Q in terms of the property data that happens to be most convenient in a given
application
Ideal gases and Perfect gases

Example 12.2:
A vessel of volume 0.3 m3 contains oxygen at 1.1 bar and 18°C. If 0.3 kg of
oxygen is now pumped into the vessel, determine the new pressure when the
vessel has returned to its initial temperature. The molecular weight of oxygen is
32 kg/kgmol and it can be assumed to be a perfect gas.
Take Ŕ = 8.3143 kJ/kgmolK
Ideal gases and Perfect gases
Constant pressure process
Using 1st Law Q = Δu + W (1st Law in integrated form)

For a reversible process 1-2

Q = h2 – h1 = Cp(T2 – T1)

So we have simple formulae relating Q and W to property values.


Ideal gases and Perfect gases

Example 12.3:
A reversible process is carried out on a perfect gas at constant pressure. The
starting temperature of the gas is 300°C and the heat loss from the system is 200
kJ. If the specific heat at constant pressure of the gas is 918 J/kgK determine the
final gas temperature
Ideal gases and Perfect gases
Constant temperature process
Using 1st Law Q = Δu + W (1st Law in integrated form)

W = p1ν1 ln(ν2/ν1)

Since T1 = T2 = T and p2ν2 = p1ν1 = RT we can rewrite as:

W = p1ν1 ln(ν2/ν1) = RT ln (ν2/ν1) = RT ln(p1/p2)

Since ΔT = 0, Δu = 0 and 1st Law gives Q = W


Ideal gases and Perfect gases

Example 12.4:
0.05 kg of a perfect gas occupies a volume of 0.007 m3 at a pressure of 9 bar and
a temperature of 140°C. Determine:

a. The molecular weight of the gas


b. The final temperature when the gas is allowed to expand until the pressure is
2 bar and the final volume is 0.05 m3

Take Ř = 8.3143 kJ/kgmolK


Ideal gases and Perfect gases

Example 12.5:
Nitrogen (N2) at 250 bar is to be stored in a steel vessel at 20°C. The capacity of
the vessel is 0.05 m3. Assuming that N2 is a perfect gas, determine the mass of N2
that can be stored in the vessel. The vessel is protected against excessive pressure
by a fusible plug that will melt if the temperature rises too high.
At what temperature must the plug melt to limit the pressure in the vessel to 280
bar?
MN2 = 28 kg/kgmol Ř = 8.3143 kJ/kgmolK
Ideal gases and Perfect gases

Example 12.6:
Calculate the number of small containers that can be filled from a large air tank,
given the following information:

Tank Container
V (m3) 8 0.2
T (°C) 28 25
p (kN/m2) 550 110

Take R = 0.287 kJ/kgK


Ideal gases and Perfect gases
Reversible adiabatic process
The reversible adiabatic process holds a very special place in thermodynamics since the process
would also be isentropic i.e. Δs = 0. It is a ‘perfect’ process against which real processes can be
compared. This type of process occurs in a large number of idealised thermodynamic cycles, such as
Rankine and Joule cycles.

If any two of the expressions: reversible, adiabatic and isentropic are true then the third automatically
applies.

Using 1st Law: dQ = du + dW


But since dQ = 0 and dW = ∫pdν
We get du + pdν = 0
Manipulation and integration of this expression for a perfect gas result in the extremely important
equation:
𝑝 𝑣𝛾 =𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 .
Use of pν/T = constant gives the alternative forms:

𝛾−1 𝑇
𝑇𝑣 =𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 . 𝛾−1
=𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 .
𝑝 𝛾
Ideal gases and Perfect gases
Polytropic process
Because of the convenience of the above equation, it is useful to introduce the closely related
expression given below and to select n to make the relationship match the experimentally measured
expansion or compression of interest:

𝑝 𝑣𝑛 =𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 .
n = polytropic index or expansion or compression as appropriate. Processes would appear on a p-ν
chart as shown above.
Ideal gases and Perfect gases

Example 12.7:
0.675 kg of gas at 1.4 MN/m2 and 280 °C is expanded to four times the original
volume according to the law pv1.3 = constant. Take R = 0.287 kJ/kgK.

Determine:
i. The original and final volume of the gas
ii. The final pressure of the gas
iii. The final temperature of the gas
Ideal gases and Perfect gases

Example 12.8:

A gas expands adiabatically from a pressure and volume of 700 kN/m2 and 0.015
m3, respectively, to a pressure of 140 kN/m2. Determine:

i. The final volume


ii. The work done
iii. The change of internal energy

Take: Cp=1.046 Cv=0,752


Ideal gases and Perfect gases

Example 12.9:

A quantity of gas occupies a volume of 0.3 m3 at a pressure of 100 kN/m2 and a


temperature of 20 °C. The gas is compressed isothermally to a pressure of 500
kN/m2 and then expanded adiabatically to its initial volume. Determine for this
quantity of gas:

i. The heat received or rejected (state which) during the compression


ii. The change of internal energy during the expansion
iii. The mass of the gas

Take γ = 1.4 and Cp = 1.0 kJ/kgK


Ideal gases and Perfect gases

Example 12.10:

A gas at pressure of 1.4 MN/m2 and temperature of 360 °C is expanded


adiabatically to a pressure of 100 kN/m2. The gas is then heated at constant
volume until it again attains 360 °C, when its pressure is found to be 220 kN/m 2
and finally it is compressed isothermally until the original pressure of 1.4 MN/m2
is attained.

Sketch the p-V diagram for these processes and if the gas has a mass of 0.23 kg,
determine:

i. The value of the adiabatic index, ɣ


ii. The change in internal energy during the adiabatic expansion
Take Cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK

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