Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics
Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics
Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics
• Module Script
• Basics of Fluid Mechanics:
https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/textbooks/85
page 2
What is a fluid?
A fluid can be a liquid or gas and may be compressed. Liquids are harder to
compress and take the shape of any container, but with an upper free surface.
Gases are easy to compress and will fill any container completely.
Compressibility is important for fluid mechanics. Whereas a solid shows its
elasticity in tension, compression or shearing a fluid only does so for
compression.
If compressed a fluid increases in pressure, trying to regain its original volume
Perfect and ideal fluid?
DENSITY
Mass density - mass of substance per unit volume ρ (kgm-3). Typical values:
water =1000 kgm-3, Mercury =13546 kgm-3, air = 1.23 kgm-3
Specific weight - same as specific gravity – weight per unit volume, or force
exerted by gravity upon a unit of the substance, ω (Nm-3). Typical values: water
= 9814 Nm-3, Mercury = 132943 Nm-3, air =12.07 Nm-3
Relative density - ratio of mass density of substance to standard mass density,
e.g. water, σ (unit-less) Typical values: water = 1, mercury = 13.5,
Properties of fluids
VISCOSITY
Dynamic viscosity for Newtonian fluids.
VISCOSITY
Kinematic viscosity (m2s-1)
VISCOSITY
Kinematic viscosity (m2s-1)
SURFACE TENSION
Surface tension arises when a liquid surface is in contact with a solid surface
and is only significant in a small number of engineering applications, e.g. in
correcting instrument readings and in small scale model studies.
Preassure and head
And, as the fluid is at rest, in equilibrium, the sum of the forces in any direction is
zero. Forces due to px, ps and py (sinθ = δy/δs):
Variation Of Pressure Vertically in a Fluid Under
Gravity
In the figure we can see an element of fluid which is a vertical column of constant
cross sectional area, A, surrounded by the same fluid of mass density ρ1 and z1. The
pressure at the bottom of the cylinder is p1 at level z1, and at the top is p2 at level z2.
The fluid is at rest and in equilibrium so all the forces in the vertical direction sum
to zero. i.e. we have:
This result is the same for any continuous fluid. It is still true for two connected
tanks which appear not to have any direct connection, for example consider the
tank in the figure below. We have shown above that pl = pr and from the equation
for a vertical pressure change we have:
General Equation For Variation of Pressure in a Static
Fluid
Here we show how the above observations for vertical and horizontal elements of
fluids can be generalised for an element of any orientation.
Hydrostatic Pressure and Head
p = -ρgh + constant
p = ρgh + patm
Atmospheric pressure is a datum, pressures > patm are known as gauge pressures
patm varies with atmospheric conditions, so a perfect vacuum is the absolute
pressure standard.
Hydrostatic Pressure and Head
Example 2.1:
A cylinder contains a fluid at a gauge pressure of 350 kN/m2. Express this pressure
in terms of a head of
a) water with ρ = 103 kg/m3)
b) mercury with relative density 13.6.
c) What would be the absolute pressure if the atmospheric pressure is 101.3
kN/m2?
The Hydrostatic Paradox
Pressure exerted by a fluid is dependent only upon the vertical head of fluid and its
mass density. It is not affected by the weight of fluid present. So in the figure
below, all four vessels have the same base area A and are filled to the same height
h with the same fluid density ρ.
Pressure Measurement by Manometry
Manometers cannot be used for very high pressures. There are two types of
manometer:
• Piezometer tube
• U-tube
Pressure or pressure difference can be measures with a U tube manometer.
Manometers use the relationship between pressure and head for pressure
measurement in the manometer or liquid gauge. The simplest form of manometer
is the piezometer tube, consisting of a single vertical tube attached to a pipe in
which fluid is flowing.
Piezometer
If the liquid is moving in pipe or vessel, the bottom of tube must be flush with
inside of vessel or reading affected by fluid velocity. This type of manometer can
only be used with liquids. Height limits on tube limit the maximum pressure it can
read.
Piezometer
Example 2.2:
What is maximum gauge pressure of water that can be measured by a piezometer
tube 2m high? (ρw = 103 kg/m3)
U-Tube manometer
pB = pC , ρman > ρ
pB = pA + ρgh1
pC = patm + ρmangh2
pA + ρgh1 = patm + ρmangh2
>> pA = patm + ρmangh2 - ρgh1
Example 2.3:
A U-tube manometer is used to measure the gauge pressure of a fluid P of density
ρ = 800 kg/m3. If the density of the manometer liquid = 13.6 X 103 kg/m3 what will
be the gauge pressure in the pipe (A) if:
a). h1 = 0.5m and D is 0.9m above BC
b). h1 = 0.1m and D is 0.2m below BC
Measuring pressure difference with a U-tube
pC = p D
pC = pA + ρghA
pD = pB + ρg(hB - h) + ρmangh
pA + ρghA = pB + ρg(hB - h) + ρmangh
pA – pB = ρg(hB - hA) + (ρman – ρ)gh
Example 2.4:
A U-tube manometer is arranged to measure the pressure difference between two
points A and B in a pipeline conveying water of density ρw = 103 kg/m3. The
density of manometric fluid is ρman = 13.6 X 103 kg/m3 and point B is 0.3m
higher than point A. Calculate the pressure difference when h = 0.7m.
Advances to the U-tube manometer
Advances to the U-tube manometer
Pressure difference,
p1 – p2 = ρg(z + zd2/D2) = ρgz(1 + zd2/D2)
page 32
Key concepts
Discharge and mean velocity
The area of cross section of the pipe at point x is A, and the mean velocity here is
um. During time t, a cylinder of fluid will pass point x with a volume = Aumt. The
volume per unit time discharge will thus be:
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐴 𝑢𝑚 𝑡 × 𝑡
𝑄= = = A 𝑢𝑚𝑡
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡
Streamlines and streamtubes
Matter cannot be created or destroyed (it is simply changed into another form of
matter). This principle is known as the Conservation of Mass and we use it in
analysing flowing fluids. The principle is applied to fixed volumes, known as
control volumes (or surfaces).
Continuity – Conservation of Mass
Example 3.1:
A pipeline of diameter 500mm diverges into two lines, of diameter 300mm and
200mm. If the velocity of water flow in the divergent lines is 30 m/s and 40 m/s
respectively, what is the flow upstream of the divergence?
Work and Energy – Laws of motion
The equation could be applied to a falling droplet of water, as the same laws of
motion apply. A more general approach to finding parameters of motion is to apply
the principle of conservation of energy:
Work and Energy – Laws of motion
Kinetic energy ?
Potential energy ?
Velocity of a continuous jet of fluid
This principle can be applied to continuous jet of water coming from a pipe with
velocity u1. One particle of the liquid with mass m travels with the jet and falls
from height z1 to z2. The velocity changes from u1 to u2. The jet is travelling in air
where the pressure everywhere is atmospheric, so there is no force due to pressure
acting on the fluid. The only force acting is due to gravity.
Velocity of a continuous jet of fluid
Example 3.2:
A jet of water is flowing from a nozzle 3m above ground level with velocity 2 m/s.
What is the jet velocity as it hits the ground, assuming the jet is whole?
Flow from a reservoir
So, the velocity of the water (neglecting friction in nozzle and pipe) flowing
from the pipe nozzle is:
Flow from a reservoir
Example 3.3:
A reservoir of water has a surface at 310m above the outlet nozzle of a pipe with
diameter 15mm. What is the:
a) Velocity
b) Discharge of the nozzle (volume flow)
c) Mass flow rate
Ignore friction in the nozzle and pipe
Pressure difference when velocities are zero
From fluid statics we know that pressure difference between two points 1 and 2
in a pipe when velocities are zero is:
p2 – p1 = ρg(z1 – z2)
This applies when pressure varies but when fluid is stationary. Compare this with
the equation derived for a moving fluid but constant pressure:
𝑝 1 𝑢❑2 𝑝 𝑢❑2
+ 𝑧 2 [ 𝑚]
1 2 2
+ + 𝑧 1= +
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌 𝑔 2𝑔
• Constant density
(i.e. fluid is incompressible)
• Friction losses are negligible
𝑝1 𝑢❑2
𝜌
+
1
2
𝑝 2 𝑢❑2
+𝑔 𝑧 1 = +
𝜌
2
2
+𝑔𝑧 2 [ ]
𝐽
𝑘𝑔
• For conditions on a single streamline
Use of Bernoulli equation
Total energy/unit weight at 1 = total energy/unit
weight at 2
𝑝 1 𝑢❑2 𝑝 𝑢❑2
+ 𝑧 2 [ 𝑚]
1 2 2
+ + 𝑧 1= +
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌 𝑔 2𝑔
This assumes no energy loss (e.g. from friction) or energy gains (e.g. from a
pump) along the streamline. It can be expanded to include these simply, by adding
the apt energy terms:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
= + + −
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔h𝑡 𝑎𝑡 1 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔h𝑡 𝑎𝑡 2 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔h 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔h𝑡 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔h𝑡
Example of use of Bernoulli – contracting and
expanding pipe
𝑝 1+
𝜌 𝑢❑2
2
1
+ 𝜌 𝑔𝑧 1=𝑝2 +
𝜌 𝑢❑2
2
2
[ ]
+ 𝜌 𝑔𝑧 2
𝑁
𝑚
2
Pressure at section 2: 𝜌
𝑝 2=𝑝 1 +
2 × ( 𝑢❑2
1 − 𝑢2 )
❑2
Example of use of Bernoulli – contracting and
expanding pipe
Example 3.4:
Water is flowing in a horizontal pipe at a rate of 20 m/s at a pressure
of 50 N/m2. A contraction followed immediately by an expansion
constricts the pipe. If this causes a pressure drop of 20 N/m2 what is
the velocity of water downstream of the constriction?:
Example of use of Bernoulli – volumetric flow of
submerged orifice
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐶𝑣=𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦=
𝑡h𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
The actual velocity will of course be less than the theoretical velocity because of
energy lost due to effect of the orifice on the fluid passing through it. For a well
designed orifice the CV value can be about 0.96.
At 2, the stream lines in the flow are parallel and pressure in the fluid is
atmospheric. This section is called the vena contracta.
Example of use of Bernoulli – volumetric flow of
submerged orifice with contraction coefficient
√( (
2(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )
𝑢2=
))
2
𝐴2
𝜌 1−
𝐴1
Example of use of Bernoulli – orifice plate (flow
meter) in a pipe
But area of jet, A2 = CC X area of orifice, A
√
2 ( 𝑝 1 −𝑝 2 )
𝑢2=
( ( ))
2
𝐴2
𝜌 × 𝐶❑2
𝑐 1−
𝐴1
But actual velocity = CVu2 And flow rate Q = CCACVu2, and where CD = CCCV
√ ( ( ))
2 ( 𝑝 1 −𝑝 2 )
𝑄=𝐶 𝐷 𝐴 2
𝐴2
𝜌 1−
𝐴1
Example of use of Bernoulli – orifice plate (flow
meter) in a pipe
Example 3.6:
A manometer is attached to tappings on across an orifice plate in a water
pipeline and reads 10m head. If the cross-sectional area of the orifice is 0.05m 2
and the discharge of the orifice is 1 m3/s, what is the diameter of the pipe? (CD
= 0.75)
Example of use of Bernoulli – orifice plate (flow
meter) in a pipe using fluid densities
If density of flowing fluid is ρf and manometer fluid is ρm then:
√ ( )𝜌𝑚
2 𝑔h −1
𝜌𝑓
𝑄=𝐶 𝐷 𝐴
( ( ))
2
𝐴1
1−
𝐴2
√ (( )
2 (𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )
𝑢1=
)
2
𝐴1
𝜌 −1
𝐴2
Contraction does not occur at the throat so CC does not apply.
Example of use of Bernoulli – Venturi (flow) meter
Actual velocity < theoretical by CD and Q = A1u1
√ (( ) )
2 (𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )
𝑄=𝐶 𝐷 𝐴1
𝐴1 2
𝜌 −1
𝐴2
√
densities:
𝑄=𝐶 𝐷 𝐴 1
2 𝑔h
𝜌𝑚
𝜌𝑓 (
−1 )
(( ) )
2
𝐴1
−1
𝐴2
Static tube and Pitot tube
Tube at right angles to flow. Only static
pressure is registered on U-tube.
√
𝑢= 2 𝑔h
If Q is required: take elements of area (A)
𝑝𝑚
𝑝𝑓
−1
( )
and measure velocities (u) then sum:
𝑄=∑ 𝐴𝑢
Flow in drains and open channels
When uniform flow occurs, gravitational
forces exactly balance the frictional
resistance forces which apply as a shear
force along the boundary. Considering the
diagram. The gravity force resolved in the
direction of flow is:
Gravity force = ρg A Lsinθ
Considering channel a small slope:
τ0 ∝ v2
τ0 = Kv2
v=
Considering channel a small slope:
This is the Chezy equation and the C is the ‘Chezy C’. Because K is not
constant the C is not constant but depends upon Reynolds number and
channel roughness/friction C=
The Manning equation
Many studies have been made of the evaluation of C for different natural and
manmade channels. These have resulted in the fact that today most practising
engineers use some form of this relationship to give C:
page 67
Laminar Flow
The assumption is that all fluid particles proceed along parallel paths and there is
no transverse component of velocity. Each particle follows exactly the path of the
previous particle. Thus a thin filament of dye will not diffuse. This motion is
predictable and so can be analysed mathematically
Turbulent Flow
The progression of fluid particles is irregular with increasingly haphazard
interchanges of position. Individual particles are subject to fluctuating transverse
velocities so that motion is eddying, not rectilinear. If a dye is injected it will
rapidly diffuse. This is a complex scenario so difficult to calculate and so
relationships are determined by empirical calculations i.e. from experiment.
Steady flow
In steady flow conditions at any point are constant with time. Turbulent flow is
never steady. For convenience in analysis we regard general steady fluid motion as
the norm and fluctuations due to turbulence as only a secondary influence, e.g.
constant discharge in a conduit/pipe – which will generally be true en masse.
Unsteady flow
With unsteady flow conditions can vary at any point over time. This is very
difficult to analyse.
Uniform flow
In uniform flow there is no variation in magnitude and direction of the velocity
vector from one point to another along the path of flow. The area of flow and
velocity must be the same at every cross-section.
Non-uniform flow
In non-uniform flow the velocity vector varies with location, e.g. flow between
converging and diverging boundaries.
Fluids in motion - laminar and turbulent flow
The factor determining laminar or turbulent flow is the ratio:
𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠
Whithn the fluid, expressed by non-dimensional Reynolds Number:
𝜌× 𝑢 × 𝐷
𝑅𝑒=
𝜇
U-fluid chcracteristic velocity
D-distance
ρ- fluid density
𝝁- fluid dynamic viscosity
Reynolds experiment
The factor determining laminar or turbulent flow is the ratio:
The boundary layer at the entrance to a tube or pipe grows at wall until at sufficient
distance downstream, the boundary layers coalesce. At this point flow is fully
developed. After this:
• if laminar flow, flow remains laminar
• if turbulent flow, flow remains turbulent
Boundary layers in pipes
Separation of boundary layer
If the pressure gradient in the free stream is zero, the boundary grows in a
downstream direction. If the pressure decreases in the downstream direction, Δp is
negative and the boundary layer decreases. If Δp is positive, the boundary layer
thickens and finally separates from the surface.
Separation – Δp negative
• Net pressure forces + inertia forces overcome viscous resistance forces on
boundary layer
• Boundary layer thickness reduced, so
• Reduced energy losses, as for flow in converging nozzle
Separation of boundary layer
Separation – Δp positive
• Net pressure forces (upstream direction) and help viscous forces, building on
boundary layer
• Boundary layer thickness rapidly increased
• At point where Σ(viscous + pressure) forces = inertial forces, then
• Boundary separates and backflow from separation causes eddies
• Position of separation depends on:
o Roughness of solid
o Reynolds number
o Geometry of solid surface
Separation of boundary layer
Separation – Δp positive
• Net pressure forces (upstream direction) and help viscous forces, building on
boundary layer
• Boundary layer thickness rapidly increased
• At point where Σ(viscous + pressure) forces = inertial forces, then
• Boundary separates and backflow from separation causes eddies
• Position of separation depends on:
o Roughness of solid
o Reynolds number
o Geometry of solid surface
Boundary layer separation – convergent flows
If the flow over a boundary occurs when there is a pressure decrease in the
direction of flow, the fluid will accelerate and the boundary layer will become
thinner. This is the case for convergent flows.
The accelerating fluid maintains the fluid close to the wall in motion. Hence the
flow remains stable and turbulence reduces. Boundary layer separation does not
occur.
Boundary layer separation – divergent flows
When the pressure increases in the direction of flow the situation is very different.
Fluid outside the boundary layer has enough momentum to overcome this pressure
which is trying to push it backwards.
Assuming equal sized pipes, as fluid is removed, the velocities at 2 and 3 are
smaller than at 1, the entrance to the tee. Thus the pressures at 2 and 3 are
lower than at 1. These two adverse pressure gradients can cause the two
separations shown in the diagram above.
Examples of boundary layer separation
3. Y-junctions
Y-junctions are special cases of the Tee-junction with similar separation zones
occurring. Downstream, away from the junction, the boundary layer
reattaches and normal flow occurs i.e. the effect of the boundary layer
separation is only local. Nevertheless fluid downstream of the junction will
have lost energy.
Examples of boundary layer separation
4. Bends
Two separation zones occur in bends as shown above. The pressure at b must
be greater than at a as it must provide the required radial acceleration for the
fluid to get round the bend. There is thus an adverse pressure gradient
between a and b, so separation may occur here.
Pressure at c is less than at the entrance to the bend but pressure at d has
returned to near the entrance value - again this adverse pressure gradient may
cause boundary layer separation.
Examples of boundary layer separation
5. Flow past a cylinder - laminar
The pattern of flow around a cylinder varies with the velocity of flow. If flow
is very slow with the Reynolds number less than 0.5, then there is no
separation of the boundary layers as with the pressure difference shown
above. If Δp is negative the boundary layer sticks to surface. Behind the
cylinder Δp becomes positive and helps viscous forces to detach the boundary
layer.
If 2 < Re < 70 then the boundary layers separate symmetrically on either side
of the cylinder. In the deceleration zone behind the cylinder the ends of these
separated zones remain attached to the cylinder, causing a wake
Examples of boundary layer separation
6. Flow past a cylinder - turbulent
Above a Re of 70 the ends of the separated zones curl up into vortices and
detach alternately from each side forming a trail of vortices on the down
stream side of the cylinder. The wake is narrower than for laminar flow due to
the turbulent boundary layer possessing more momentum and moving along
further before separation.
Examples of boundary layer separation
7. Aerofoil
page 97
Equation of motion
𝑑𝑢
𝑝 𝑑 𝐴− ( 𝑝+𝑑𝑝 ) dA − ρ 𝑔𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃= 𝜌 𝑔𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑠𝑢
𝑑𝑠
Energy Equation for Incompressible flow (Euler)
The Euler equation applies to ideal frictionless fluid:
𝑝 𝑢2
+ +𝑔𝑧 =𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌 2
In a real situation there will be energy loss between two points in the flow and
there may also be specific work extracted from the fluid, so the energy
equation is:
𝑝1 𝑢❑2 𝑝 𝑢❑2
+ 1 +𝑔 𝑧 1 = 2 + 2 +𝑔 𝑧 2+𝑒 𝑓 1− 2+ 𝑒𝑤 1 −2
𝜌 2 𝜌 2
Where:
ef1-2 = specific energy loss between 1 and 2 (J/kg)
ew1-2 = specific work done BY fluid (e.g on turbine) between 1 and 2 (J/kg)
Energy Loss
Energy loss can be expressed in terms of the pipeline characteristics and
losses due to friction caused by the length or roughness of pipe, bends, tees,
valves and other fittings.
𝑓𝐿𝑢 2
Friction loss due to pipe length: 𝑒𝑓 =
2𝑚
ƒ = friction factor
L = length of pipe
m = hydraulic mean depth = cross-sectional area/wetted perimeter
4 𝐿𝑓 𝑢 2
The pressure drop due to friction: ∆ 𝑝= 𝜌 𝑒 𝑓 =𝜌 ×
𝑑 2
Example 5.1:
A pipeline of constant diameter and 435 m length conveys water from a
reservoir to a turbine situated 100 m below the reservoir level as shown. The
velocity of flow through the pipeline is 2.0 m/s and the energy loss due to
friction in the pipeline is 203 J/kg. The water leaves the turbine at atmospheric
pressure (100 kN/m2) and with negligible velocity. Assuming an efficiency of
80% for the turbine, determine:
Friction loss due to pipe length:
4 𝑓𝐿 𝑢 2
𝐸𝑓 = ×
𝑑 2
(take ƒ = 0.005)
Reynolds and friction
Reynolds found that it is not the absolute size of bumps on pipe surface that
constitute roughness, but the size of bumps in relation to the diameter of the
pipe. Relative roughness approximates k/d, where k is average height of
surface bumps and d is pipe diameter:
Stanton and Nikuradse
Stanton and Nikuradse were researchers who carried out many experiments on
pipes of various diameters and materials and with a range of fluids.
ef ∝ um
In the complete turbulence rough zone viscous effects are negligible, and
energy loss
ef ∝ um2
and ƒ is constant.
Both effects are present in the transition zone due to the partial protrusion of
bumps
Nikuradse works for uniform roughness, which is not true in practice and
transition zone effects will actually be greater.
Transition zone
This is an important zone as nearly all commercial pipes, especially when
new, operate within it.
Colebrook and White did experiments with commercial pipes at high Re
where
ƒ ∝ Re
This result compares with Nikuradse and gives a uniform sand grain k for a
pipe and an equivalent size grain, e.g 0.26mm for uncoated cast iron pipe.
Moody used equivalent grain sizes and the Moody diagram is now considered
to be the standard best means for predicting ƒ in civil engineering.
Transition zone
Turbulent flow
In turbulent flow random motion perpendicular to the wall dies out close to
wall, thus creating a very thin layer of fluid – the laminar sub-layer. At higher
Re a more intense random perpendicular motion reduces the thickness of the
laminar sub-layer and surface irregularities generate eddies. These cause
kinetic energy losses proportional to u2. So the pressure loss for turbulent flow
is proportional to the square of the velocity.
For smooth pipes the laminar sub-layer is thick enough to completely cover
the surface irregularities, which will have no effect on the main flow and so
all curves coincide.
As Re increases the laminar sub-layer becomes thinner and surface
irregularities protrude into the main flow. The Rougher the pipe – the lower
the Re that this occurs at.
Pressure loss during laminar flow in a pipe
The shear stress in a pipe τw is almost impossible to measure. But for laminar
flow it is possible to calculate a theoretical value for a given velocity, fluid
and pipe dimension.
In laminar flow the paths of individual particles of fluid do not cross, so the
flow may be considered as a series of concentric cylinders sliding over each
other - rather like the cylinders of a collapsible pocket telescope.
The system is in equilibrium, so the shearing forces on the cylinder equal the
pressure forces.
𝜇 𝑑𝑢
𝜏=
𝑑𝑦
Pressure loss during laminar flow in a pipe
Measuring from the pipe centre (usual convention) then change the sign and
replace y with r distance from the centre, giving:
−𝜇 𝑑𝑢
𝜏=
𝑑𝑟
this is a parabolic profile (of the form y = ax2 + b ) so the velocity profile in
the pipe looks similar to the figure below:
∆ 𝑝 𝑑2 ∆ 𝑝 𝜋 𝑑4
𝑄= ×
32𝜇 𝐿 128 𝜇 𝐿
Losses due to fittings and bends, etc. h = K(u2/2g)
:
Fluid momentum
page 118
Newton’s Second Law of Motion
Rate of change of momentum is proportional to impressed force
Where a = acceleration.
Momentum Equation
𝐹 𝑅 =√ 𝐹 𝑥 + 𝐹 𝑦
2 2
Momentum and two dimensional flow
FR = Force exerted on the fluid by any solid body touching the control
volume
FB = Force exerted on the fluid body (e.g. gravity)
FP = Force exerted on the fluid by fluid pressure outside the control volume
𝐹 𝑇 =𝐹 𝑅 +𝐹 𝐵 +𝐹 𝑃
Momentum and two dimensional flow
Example 7.1:
Determine the resultant force and angle of action on a control volume of fluid
in a 2-dimensional system with inlet and outlet flows of 5 and 8 m/s
respectively and inlet and outlet angles 25° and 40° respectively. The relative
density of the fluid is 0.87 and the cross-sectional area at the inlet is 20 m 2.
Application of the momentum equation – Force due
to flow around a pipe bend
Force on the nozzle at the outlet of a pipe. Because the fluid is contracted at
the nozzle forces are induced in the nozzle. Anything holding the nozzle (e.g. a
fireman) must be strong enough to withstand these forces.
This case is similar to that of a pipe, but the analysis is simpler because the
pressures are equal - atmospheric, and both the cross-section and velocities (in
the direction of flow) remain constant. The jet, vane and co-ordinate direction are
arranged as in the figure left.
Force on a curved vane
Example 7.5:
Calculate the force on a curved vane and angle of application when water
discharge is 10m3/s and cross-sectional area of the jet is 2m2. Outlet angle is 45°
and volume of fluid on vane is 50m3
Thermodynamics
page 136
Introduction
• Heat
• Work
Properties of a System
Properties of a system define the system and effectively DEFINE the STATE of
the system. The properties of most engineering and scientific interest are:
• Pressure, p (N/m2)
• Temperature and thermodynamic temperature, T (K)
• Specific volume, ν = 1/ρ (m3/kg)
• Internal energy, u (J/kg)
• Enthalpy, h (J/kg)
• Entropy, s (J/kgK)
Properties of a System
Pressure
P = F/A
Properties of a System
Specific Volume
Specific volume essentially describes the same property as density.
Internal energy gives the amount of energy bound up within a substance due to
its temperature and pressure, e.g. steam at high temperature and pressure has
high internal energy and therefore its capacity to do work is high
Internal energy is fundamentally linked to the First Law of Thermodynamics and
is very useful in problems associated with closed systems
Units: u = J/kg
Properties of a System
Enthalpy
Enthalpy is very closely linked to internal energy. It also represents energy bound
up within the system due to its temperature and pressure and capacity for doing
work.
Units: h = J/kg, H = J
Properties of a System
Entropy
Entropy is extremely difficult to understand and is associated with the 2nd Law
of Thermodynamics.
So we use it as a device to solve problems by employing simple rules:
∆ 𝑠=𝑠 2 − 𝑠1=0
Properties of a System
Extensive vs Intensive properties
For an Extensive property – its total value depends upon the extent of the system
(how many kg), i.e. volume, internal energy, enthalpy, entropy.
For an Intensive property – its value is independent of the extent of the system,
i.e. pressure and temperature.
First Law of Thermodynamics
The 1st Law of Thermodynamics concerns the conservation of energy and how
heat and work relate to one another. The Law describes what must apply to a
cyclic process = a process that returns exactly to start point.
First Law of Thermodynamics
Closed system
dQ = dW
If this applies for a cyclic process, then for any process which is NOT a cyclic
process we can write:
1∫2 (dQ – dW) ≠ 0
First Law of Thermodynamics
Integrating this form of the expression gives the result for a complete process
(and noting that ∫dQ equals Q for the process):
Q = ΔU + W
First Law of Thermodynamics
Example 8.1:
What are the specific volume, specific energy, specific internal energy and
specific enthalpy of superheated steam when:
a. Pressure is 3 MPa and temperature is 400°C
b. Pressure is 3 MPa and temperature is 420°C
c. Pressure is 3.3 MPa and temperature is 400°C
First Law of Thermodynamics
Example 8.2:
A closed system contains 1 kg of steam at 1 MN/m2 pressure and temperature
400°C. The system undergoes a process in which 100 kJ of heat is given to the
system and 10 kJ of work is done by the system.
a. What is the initial internal energy?
b. What is the final internal energy?
c. If the process occurs at constant pressure, what is the final temperature?
First Law of Thermodynamics
Example 8.3:
A container contains 6.7 kg of steam at 2 bar and 220°C. A process occurs in
which the system loses 500 kJ of heat. The final pressure and temperature are 8
bar and 470°C. Determine:
a. The initial and final values of internal energy
b. The total work done
Thermodynamic Work and Reversibility
Shaft work
Displacement work
Force on piston
δW = pAdL
Thermodynamic Work and Reversibility
Work is not a property. The value for work does not depend
on the end states of 1 and 2. In fact a quick look at the
diagram shows that there are an infinite number of ways of
passing from 1 to 2.
The value for work (area under curve) is clearly different for
each of these routes. A system only does displacement work
when there is movement of the system boundary
Reversibility and Irreversibility
Reversibility
Most processes are not perfect (reversible) and are said to be irreversible.
Despite this equation W = ∫pdV is sufficiently valid to give the value for
displacement work in most instances of engineering significance.
Work Transfer in a Cyclic Process
page 160
The First Law applied to Open Systems
In a closed system there is no flow in or out if it. The system is comprised of the
same constituents at all times, i.e. energy is conserved.
The principle of the 1st Law (i.e. energy conservation) can usefully be extended
to a system where flow is allowed into and out of the system, i.e. an open
system.
Control Volume
The control volume effectively encloses the machine or device of interest and
flow is allowed in and out. The 1st Law is applied to a fixed mass of fluid
(comprising the system) as it passes between the inlet and outlet of the control
volume.
Steady flow energy equation
By assuming the flow to be steady, which implies equal mass flow into and out
of the system and therefore no build up of mass within the control volume, the
steady flow energy equation (SFEE) is derived:
𝑣 12 𝑄 𝑊 𝑣 2
2
h1 + +𝑔𝑧 1+ − =h2 + +𝑔𝑧 2
2 𝑚 𝑚 2
h = enthalpy in this case!!!
Special Cases for the Use of SFEE
Heat transfer (Q) and difference in potential (gz) energy terms are normally
negligible, i.e. z1 = z2
𝑣 12 𝑄 𝑊 𝑣 2
2
h1 + +𝑔𝑧 1+ − =h2 + +𝑔𝑧 2
2 𝑚 𝑚 2
Special Cases for the Use of SFEE
Work term (W) and difference in potential (gz) energy terms are normally
negligible, i.e. z1 = z2
𝑣 12 𝑄 𝑊 𝑣 2
2
h1 + +𝑔𝑧 1+ − =h2 + +𝑔𝑧 2
2 𝑚 𝑚 2
Special Cases for the Use of SFEE
Nozzle
Work (W), heat transfer (Q) and difference in potential (gz) energy terms are
normally negligible,
𝑣 12 𝑄 𝑊 𝑣 2
2
h1 + +𝑔𝑧 1+ − =h2 + +𝑔𝑧 2
2 𝑚 𝑚 2
Frequently v1 << v2
𝑣 22=2 ( h 1 − h2 )
Special Cases for the Use of SFEE
𝑣 12 𝑄 𝑊 𝑣 2
2
h1 + +𝑔𝑧 1+ − =h2 + 𝑔𝑧 2
2 𝑚 𝑚 2
( h1 =h2 )
The Continuity Equation
The SFEE is an equation based on the principle of conservation of energy in
an open system. The Continuity equation is based on the principle of
conservation of mass in steady flow through an open system
This equation is typical of one that links property values at a state point and its
validity does not depend on any processes that might be undertaken. The
equation is always true for a pure substance, by definition.
dh = du + pdν + νdp
Use of h = u + pν in First Law
1st Law for closed system: dQ = du + dW
So dQ = du + pdν
From p1 V1 to p2 V2
a. Constant volume 1 1 2 1
b. Constant pressure 1 2 1 4
c. Constant pV product 1 3 2 3/2
d. Find the work done in a different kind of process between the same end
states as in c. if the heat lost is 10 kJ.
Class example 10.2
A steam turbine receives a a steam flow of 5000 kg/hour and delivers 500 kW.
The heat loss (Q) and turbine bearing loss are negligible. Find the change in
enthalpy per kg of steam across the turbine:
a. If the changes of kinetic energy and elevation between entrance and exit
are negligible
b. If the flow velocities at entrance and exit are respectively 50 and 300 m/s,
and the inlet pipe is 5m above the exhaust.
Class example 10.3
Steam at 1 MN/m2 and 300°C approaches a horizontal nozzle through a
passage of very large cross-section. Its pressure and temperature at outlet from
the nozzle are 0.5 MN/m2 and 250°C. Neglecting heat loss from the nozzle,
find:
Pure substance
Pure substance is matter of a single chemical composition, e.g. water. If the
whole system contains only water then it is not important if it is in the ice,
water or steam phase; it can be considered as pure.
Properties of Pure Substances
Phases of a Pure Substance
When work or heat is transferred to a pure substance, this will at some point
produce a phase change, e.g. when water is heated, some of the water will turn
to gas (water vapour or steam) when a sufficiently high temperature is
reached.
Because of the importance of water, the three phase have unique names, solid
phase = ice, liquid phase = water and gaseous phase = steam.
For most pure substances, the word solid, liquid or gas would be appended to
the substance name as appropriate.
Properties of Pure Substances
Saturated properties of a pure substance
𝑟 =𝑟 𝑓 +𝑥 ( 𝑟 𝑔 −𝑟 𝑓 )
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑥=
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟
Properties of Pure Substances
Three-dimensional p-V-T surface
For reference only, note that water is an unusual substance in that it
expands on freezing (ice floats). This produces a strange ‘kink’ in
the p-V-T surface. This is not an issue for us as it is in the region we
are not studying,. i.e. liquid-solid phase change.
Properties of Pure Substances
Rankine Cycle
Rankine cycle is a reversible steam power plant cycle (no losses due to irreversibility).
Stage 1 Water at low temperature and pressure is raised to boiler pressure by a feed pump and
passed into the boiler
Stage 2 Heat is transferred to water in a boiler at high pressure to produce high temperature,
superheated steam. The steam has lots of energy due to its high temperature and pressure (i.e. high
value of enthalpy, or capacity to do work, h).
Stage 3 The steam passes through a turbine in which energy is effectively extracted from the steam
to produce work, i.e. to turn a turbine shaft and blade arrangement, which in turn operates a
generator to produce electricity. On passing through the turbine the pressure drops to close to
atmospheric pressure.
Stage 4 Rather than letting the steam condense to atmosphere, it is condensed to water in a
condenser (e.g. a cooling tower), ready to be repressurised and go round the cycle again.
Properties of Pure Substances
Rankine cycle efficiency
Efficiency is a measure of how much of the input heat can be converted into work – usually < 40%!!
This is due to thermodynamic limitations on the possibilities of converting heat to work.
Efficiency
η=
But WP<<<WT so η=
Properties of Pure Substances
Rankine cycle on a T- s property diagram
Flow through the turbine and feed pump are reversible and
adiabatic (Q=0). This means that there is no change of
entropy, s, through either of these devices (Δs = 0). On a T-s
diagram, the processes in the turbine and feed pump appear
as vertical lines. This information is extremely useful for
solving Rankine cycle problems.
Properties of Pure Substances
Calculations of Rankine performance
To analyse the cycle, the SFEE should be applied to each
device to permit calculations of heat and work:
𝑣 12 𝑄 𝑊 𝑣 22
h1 + +𝑔 𝑧 1 + − =h2 + +𝑔 𝑧 2
2 𝑚 𝑚 2
We always assume that kinetic and potential energy terms
are negligible and that the turbine and feed pump are
adiabatic. This gives:
• Turbine: W/m = hin – hout = -ΔhT But W/m is negligible, so Δh is negligible >> h in =
• Condenser: Q/m = hin – hout = -ΔhC hout
• Feed pump: W/m = hout – hin = ΔhP 𝑊 𝑇 − Δ h T h3 −h 4
• Boiler: Q/m = hout – hin = ΔhB η= = =
𝑄𝐵 Δ h B h3 −h 2
Properties of Pure Substances
Comments on heat engines
A Rankine steam power plant is a type of heat engine. A working fluid (steam) is taken through a
cyclic process and some heat input is converted into work. There is always some heat rejected from
such a cycle.
Example 11.1:
A reversible Rankine steam power plant operates with a boiler pressure of 15 bar and a condenser
pressure of 1 bar. Both the turbine and the feed pump operate adiabatically and the work required by
the feed pump is negligible. The temperature of the turbine inlet is 450°C.
a. Sketch the cycle on a T-s diagram
b. Determine the enthalpy at the main 4 state points in the cycle
c. Determine the thermal efficiency of the plant
d. Determine the temperature at turbine outlet
Properties of Pure Substances
Real Rankine Cycle
The real Rankine cycle will have frictional effects in all components (irreversibilities). These effects
will cause efficiency to drop.
Example 11.3b:
Assume the steam turbine in 3a is part of a steam Rankine cycle which is fully reversible except for
the turbine. The working fluid at entry to the feed pump is saturated liquid and the feed pump work
requirement is negligible.
Example 11.5b:
The efficiency calculated in 5a above is disappointingly low. Explain why this is so, making reference
to the 2nd Law of thermodynamics
Example 11.5c:
Discuss:
i. Ways by which the cycle in 5a can be improved
ii. Alternative schemes for utilising the heat energy more effectively
Properties of Pure Substances
Answer 11.3c:
The efficiency of the cycle can be improved by increasing T1 i.e. increasing driving force. This is
done by increasing the boiler pressure and increasing the amount of superheat out of the boiler. There
are other techniques, such as reheat, which help to get the average temperature of heat reception up.
An additional approach could be to use low grade waste heat for district heating or for process heat,
where possible. Heat is then not wasted and instead of calculating η we calculate an energy utilisation
factor.
Ideal gases and Perfect gases
Ideal gas and specific heat
Gases have a very special part to play in thermodynamics. A number of very important cyclic
processes have:
• A gas as the working fluid (Joule gas turbine cycle, Otto petrol engine cycle, Diesel engine cycle)
or
• A condensable gas as the working fluid (Rankine steam power cycle, refrigeration cycle)
The flow of gases is also clearly a major part of the study of fluid dynamics and aerodynamics.
Fortunately the properties of gases are very often related to one another in a very simple way.
Ideal gases and Perfect gases
Ideal gas
Experiments by Boyle and Charise demonstrated that many gases at typical temperatures and
pressures obey a simple relationship:
𝑝𝑣= 𝑅𝑇
Where R is a constant for the gas and ν is specific volume.
A gas obeying this relationship is termed an ideal gas. Many gases approximate this behaviour and
might therefore for convenience be assumed to be ideal.
For a process 1-2 involving an ideal gas we can write:
𝑝1 𝑣 1 𝑝 2 𝑣 2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
If in addition we have a process where either pressure, volume or temperature is constant we get
further simplification
Ideal gases and Perfect gases
Universal gas constant
The gas constant of a particular gas can be determined for an ideal gas if the molecular weight is
known. We can rewrite the gas law for a fixed mass m of fluid in a volume V:
𝑝𝑉 =𝑚𝑅𝑇
Avogadro determined that if we have a mass of gas equal to the molecular weight in kg (M), a
pressure of 1 atmosphere (po), a temperature of 0°C (T), then:
𝑝𝑜 𝑉 𝑜 𝑘𝐽
=𝑀𝑅=𝑅=8.3143
𝑇𝑜 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙 . 𝐾
Ȓ is known as the Universal Gas Constant. We can always use Ȓ and M to get the gas constant R for
the gas of interest.
Ideal gases and Perfect gases
Specific heats
Specific heats relate heat input to rise in temperature. In thermodynamics there are two definitions of
specific heat relating energy terms to rise in temperature:
• enthalpy and
• internal energy
These are complex, but made simpler depending upon simplifying assumptions that can be made for a
given system.
Ideal gases and Perfect gases
Definitions of specific heat for any pure substance
Specific heat at constant pressure:
𝐶𝑝=
𝑑h
𝑑𝑇( ) 𝑝
The relationship between enthalpy and temperature for a process occurring at constant pressure. Cp
may not be constant.
Specific heat at constant volume:
𝐶𝑉 = ( )
𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑇 𝑣
The relationship between internal energy and temperature for a process occurring at constant volume,
Cv may not be constant.
Ideal gases and Perfect gases
Definitions of specific heat for a semi-perfect gas
Joule and Thompson conducted experiments that showed for most gases (called semi-perfect gases)
that:
𝑑h 𝑑𝑢
𝐶𝑝= 𝐶𝑣=
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
h2 −h 1=𝐶 𝑝 ( 𝑇 2 −𝑇 1)
𝑢2 −𝑢1=𝐶 𝑣 ( 𝑇 2 −𝑇 1)
Ideal gases and Perfect gases
Ratio of specific heats, γ
The ratio of specific heats appears in a number of thermodynamic equations and is given the symbol
𝐶𝑝
𝛾=
𝐶𝑣
Differentiate: dh = du + RdT
Differentiate: dh = du + RdT
NB: applies to a semi-perfect or perfect ideal gas, i.e. Cp and Cv may not be constant in reality.
Ideal gases and Perfect gases
Example 12.1:
Determine the volume occupied by 0.07 kg air at a pressure of 130 kN/m 2 and a
temperature of 18°C. Take R (air) = 0.287 kJ/kgK
Ideal gases and Perfect gases
Non-flow processes involving perfect gases
A perfect gas is a particular type of ideal gas for which the following formulae are true:
pν = RT Δh = CpΔT Δu = CvΔT
The simple nature of these formulae allows calculations of heat transfer and work for many processes
to be expressed in simple terms. It also permits changes in one property to be related with little
difficulty to changes in another property for which we have data. It is most convenient to express all
equations in specific terms (per kg gas). To get the actual change, multiply the quantity by the mass of
gas in the system, m.
Ideal gases and Perfect gases
Constant volume process
Using 1st Law Q = Δu + W (1st Law in integrated form)
V is constant, so dV = 0, pdV = 0, W = 0
And Q = Δu = CvΔT
Example 12.2:
A vessel of volume 0.3 m3 contains oxygen at 1.1 bar and 18°C. If 0.3 kg of
oxygen is now pumped into the vessel, determine the new pressure when the
vessel has returned to its initial temperature. The molecular weight of oxygen is
32 kg/kgmol and it can be assumed to be a perfect gas.
Take Ŕ = 8.3143 kJ/kgmolK
Ideal gases and Perfect gases
Constant pressure process
Using 1st Law Q = Δu + W (1st Law in integrated form)
Q = h2 – h1 = Cp(T2 – T1)
Example 12.3:
A reversible process is carried out on a perfect gas at constant pressure. The
starting temperature of the gas is 300°C and the heat loss from the system is 200
kJ. If the specific heat at constant pressure of the gas is 918 J/kgK determine the
final gas temperature
Ideal gases and Perfect gases
Constant temperature process
Using 1st Law Q = Δu + W (1st Law in integrated form)
W = p1ν1 ln(ν2/ν1)
Example 12.4:
0.05 kg of a perfect gas occupies a volume of 0.007 m3 at a pressure of 9 bar and
a temperature of 140°C. Determine:
Example 12.5:
Nitrogen (N2) at 250 bar is to be stored in a steel vessel at 20°C. The capacity of
the vessel is 0.05 m3. Assuming that N2 is a perfect gas, determine the mass of N2
that can be stored in the vessel. The vessel is protected against excessive pressure
by a fusible plug that will melt if the temperature rises too high.
At what temperature must the plug melt to limit the pressure in the vessel to 280
bar?
MN2 = 28 kg/kgmol Ř = 8.3143 kJ/kgmolK
Ideal gases and Perfect gases
Example 12.6:
Calculate the number of small containers that can be filled from a large air tank,
given the following information:
Tank Container
V (m3) 8 0.2
T (°C) 28 25
p (kN/m2) 550 110
If any two of the expressions: reversible, adiabatic and isentropic are true then the third automatically
applies.
𝛾−1 𝑇
𝑇𝑣 =𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 . 𝛾−1
=𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 .
𝑝 𝛾
Ideal gases and Perfect gases
Polytropic process
Because of the convenience of the above equation, it is useful to introduce the closely related
expression given below and to select n to make the relationship match the experimentally measured
expansion or compression of interest:
𝑝 𝑣𝑛 =𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 .
n = polytropic index or expansion or compression as appropriate. Processes would appear on a p-ν
chart as shown above.
Ideal gases and Perfect gases
Example 12.7:
0.675 kg of gas at 1.4 MN/m2 and 280 °C is expanded to four times the original
volume according to the law pv1.3 = constant. Take R = 0.287 kJ/kgK.
Determine:
i. The original and final volume of the gas
ii. The final pressure of the gas
iii. The final temperature of the gas
Ideal gases and Perfect gases
Example 12.8:
A gas expands adiabatically from a pressure and volume of 700 kN/m2 and 0.015
m3, respectively, to a pressure of 140 kN/m2. Determine:
Example 12.9:
Example 12.10:
Sketch the p-V diagram for these processes and if the gas has a mass of 0.23 kg,
determine: