2.

Material-Removal Processes and

Machines

By: Kasahun N.
Introduction
 Machining is the most versatile and accurate of all manufacturing
processes in its capability to produce a diversity of part
geometries and geometric features.
 Machined parts can be classified as rotational or non rotational.

I. A rotational work part: has a cylindrical or disk-like shape.

The characteristic operation that produces this geometry is one
in which a cutting tool removes material from a rotating work
part. E.g. turning and boring.
II. A non rotational (also called prismatic) work part: is block-
like or plate-like. This geometry is achieved by linear motions
of the work part, combined with either rotating or linear tool
motions. e.g. milling, shaping, planning, and sawing.
 Material-Removal Machines
1. The Engine Lathe
 Engine lathe is a machine tool which rotates the w/p on its axis to
perform various operations such as cutting, knurling, drilling, or
deformation with tools that are applied to the w/p to create an
object which has symmetry about an axis of rotation.
 The job is securely and rigidly held in the chuck or in between
centers on the lathe machine and then turn it against a single point
cutting tool which will remove metal from the job in the form of
chips. C:\Users\DELL\Downloads\Video\video_9.mp4
Principal Parts of An Engine Lathe
 The headstock contains the drive unit to rotate the spindle, which
rotates the work.
 Opposite the headstock is the tailstock, in which a center is
mounted to support the other end of the workpiece.
 The cutting tool is held in a tool post fastened to the cross-slide,
which is assembled to the carriage.
 The carriage is designed to slide along the ways of the lathe in
order to feed the tool parallel to the axis of rotation.
 The ways are like tracks along which the carriage rides, and they
are made with great precision to achieve a high degree of
parallelism relative to the spindle axis.
 The carriage is driven by a lead screw that rotates at the proper
speed to obtain the desired feed rate.
 The cross-slide is designed to feed in a direction perpendicular to
the carriage movement.
 Thus, by moving the carriage, the tool can be fed parallel to the
work axis to perform straight turning; or by moving the cross-
slide, the tool can be fed radially into the work to perform facing,
form turning, or cutoff operations.
 The size of a lathe is designated by swing and maximum distance
between centers.
 The swing is the maximum work part diameter that can be rotated
in the spindle, determined as twice the distance between the
centerline of the spindle and the ways of the machine.
 The actual maximum size of a cylindrical workpiece that can be
accommodated on the lathe is smaller than the swing.
 The maximum distance between centers indicates the maximum
length of a workpiece that can be mounted between headstock and
tailstock centers.
 For example, a 350 mm x 1.2 m lathe designates that the swing is
350 mm and the maximum distance between centers is 1.2 m.
 Methods of Holding the Work in a Lathe
 There are four common methods used to hold work parts in turning.
 These work holding methods consist of various mechanisms to grasp
the work, center and support it in position along the spindle axis, and
rotate it.
 The methods, are (a) mounting the work between centers, (b) chuck,
(c) collet, and (d) face plate.
Lathe operations
Turning
• Turning is a machining process in which a single-point tool
removes material from the surface of a rotating workpiece.
• The tool is fed linearly in a direction parallel to the axis of
rotation to generate a cylindrical geometry.
Additional operations performed on a
lathe
a) Facing. The tool is fed radially into the rotating work on one end
to create a flat surface on the end.

b) Taper turning. Instead of feeding the tool parallel to the axis of

rotation of the work, the tool is fed at an angle, thus creating a
tapered cylinder or conical shape.

c) Contour turning. Instead of feeding the tool along a straight line

parallel to the axis of rotation as in turning, the tool follows a
contour that is other than straight, thus creating a contoured
form in the turned part.
d) Form turning. In this operation, sometimes called forming, the
tool has a shape that is imparted to the work by plunging the
tool radially into the work.

e) Chamfering. The cutting edge of the tool is used to cut an angle

on the corner of the cylinder, forming what is called a
‘‘chamfer.’’

f) Cutoff. The tool is fed radially into the rotating work at some
location along its length to cut off the end of the part. This
operation is sometimes referred to as parting.
g) Threading. A pointed tool is fed linearly across the outside
surface of the rotating work part in a direction parallel to the axis
of rotation at a large effective feed rate, thus creating threads in
the cylinder.

h) Boring. A single-point tool is fed linearly, parallel to the axis of

rotation, on the inside diameter of an existing hole in the part.

i) Drilling. Drilling can be performed on a lathe by feeding the drill

into the rotating work along its axis. Reaming can be performed
in a similar way.
j) Knurling. This is not a machining operation because it does not
involve cutting of material. Instead, it is a metal forming
operation used to produce a regular cross- hatched pattern in the
work surface.
II. Drill presses
 The standard machine tool for drilling is the drill press. There are
various types of drill press, like upright drill, radial drill, gang drill

a. Upright drill
• It stands on the floor and consists of a
table for holding the work part, a drilling
head with powered spindle for the drill
bit, and a base and column for support.
• A similar drill press, but smaller, is the
bench drill, which is mounted on a table
or bench rather than the floor.
• C:\Users\DELL\Downloads\Video\video
_5.mp4
b. Radial drill
 a large drill press designed to cut holes in large parts. It has a radial
arm along which the drilling head can be moved and clamped.
 The head therefore can be positioned along the arm at locations
that are a significant distance from the column to accommodate
large work.
c. The gang drill
 a drill press consisting basically of 2-6 up right drills connected
together in an in-line arrangement.
 Each spindle is powered and operated independently, and they
share a common worktable, so that a series of drilling and related
operations can be accomplished in sequence (e.g., centering,
drilling, reaming, tapping) simply by sliding the work part along
the worktable from one spindle to the next.
 Work holding on a drill press is accomplished by clamping the part in a
vise, fixture, or jig.

◦ A vise is a general-purpose work holding device possessing two jaws

that grasp the work in position.

◦ A fixture is a work holding device that is usually custom-designed for

the particular work part. The fixture can be designed to achieve
higher accuracy in positioning the part relative to the machining
operation, faster production rates, and greater operator convenience in
use.

◦ A jig is a work holding device that is also specially designed for the
work part. The distinguishing feature between a jig and a fixture is
that the jig provides a means of guiding the tool during the drilling
operation.
Operations carried out by press drill
1. Drilling
 Drilling is a machining operation used to create a round hole in a
work part.
 Drilling is usually performed with a rotating cylindrical tool that
has two cutting edges on its working end. The tool is called a drill
or drill bit.
Additional operations performed on a drilling machine
a) Reaming. Reaming is used to slightly enlarge a hole, to provide a
better tolerance on its diameter, and to improve its surface finish.
The tool is called a reamer, and it usually has straight flutes.

b) Tapping. This operation is performed by a tap and is used to

provide internal screw threads on an existing hole.

c) Counter boring. Counter boring provides a stepped hole, in

which a larger diameter follows a smaller diameter partially into
the hole. A counter bored hole is used to seat bolt heads into a
hole so the heads do not protrude above the surface.
d) Counter sinking. This is similar to counter boring, except that the
step in the hole is cone-shaped for flat head screws and bolts.

e) Centering. Also called center drilling, this operation drills a

starting hole to accurately establish its location for subsequent
drilling. The tool is called a center drill.

f) Spot facing. Spot facing is similar to milling. It is used to provide

a flat machined surface on the work part in a localized area.
III. Milling machines
 Milling machines contain a rotating spindle for the cutter and a
table for fastening, positioning, and feeding the work part. Three
types:

a. horizontal milling machine has a horizontal spindle …

C:\Users\DELL\Downloads\Video\video_10.mp4

b. vertical milling machine has a vertical spindle

c. Universal milling machine: can be adjusted horizontally and
vertically.
 Types of milling operations
 There are two basic types of milling operations

a. peripheral milling and

b. face milling.
1. Peripheral Milling

 In peripheral milling, the axis of the tool is parallel to the

surface being machined, and the operation is performed by

cutting edges on the outside periphery of the cutter.

a. Slab milling, the basic form of peripheral milling in which the

cutter width extends beyond the workpiece on both sides.

b. Slotting, also called slot milling, in which the width of the

cutter is less than the workpiece width, creating a slot in the

work when the cutter is very thin, this operation can be used to

mill narrow slots or cut a work part in two, called saw milling.
c. Side milling, in which the cutter machines the side of the
workpiece.

d. Straddle milling, the same as side milling, only cutting takes

place on both sides of the work.

e. Form milling, in which the milling teeth have a special profile

that determines the shape of the slot that is cut in the work. Form
milling is therefore classified as a forming operation.
 In peripheral milling, the direction of cutter rotation distinguishes
two forms of milling:

◦ up milling, also called conventional milling, the direction of

motion of the cutter teeth is opposite the feed direction. It is
milling ‘‘against the feed.’’

◦ down milling, also called climb milling, the direction of cutter

motion is the same as the feed direction. It is milling ‘‘with the
feed. ’’
II. Face Milling
 In face milling, the axis of the cutter is perpendicular to the
surface being milled, and machining is performed by cutting edges
on both the end and outside periphery of the cutter.

a. Conventional face milling, in which the diameter of the cutter is

greater than the work part width, so the cutter over hangs the
work on both sides.

b. Partial face milling, where the cutter overhangs the work on

only one side.
c. End milling, in which the cutter diameter is less than the work
width, so a slot is cut in to the part.

d. Profile milling, a form of end milling in which the outside

periphery of a flat part is cut.

e. Pocket milling, another form of end milling used to mill shallow

pockets into flat parts.
f. Surface contouring, in which a ball-nose cutter (rather than
square-end cutter) is fed back and forth across the work along a
curvilinear path at close intervals to create a three- dimensional
surface form.
Milling cutters

 Milling cutter is the cutting tool used in milling machines.

 It has a cylindrical body, rotates on its axis, and is provided
equally spaced teeth which engage the work piece internally.

Classification:
 The broad classification of milling cutters is according to the shape
of teeth they carry. These includes

1. Plain milling cutters 5. Metal slitting cutters

2. Side milling cutters 6. Angle milling cutters

7. Formed milling cutters
3. End milling cutters
8. T-slot milling cutters
4. Face milling cutters
1. PLAIN MILLING CUTTERS
 It has straight or helical teeth cut on the periphery of a disc or a
cylindrical surface.
 Generally helical teeth are used when the width of the cutter
exceeds 75 mm.
 The plain milling cutter is generally used for milling flat surfaces

parallel to cutter axis.

 Helical teeth cutter is used where large stock removal is required.

 Helical angle permits several teeth to cut simultaneously which

results in smoother cutting action.

 Heavy duty plain cutters have fewer teeth and helix angle 35˚-45˚.
 There are sometimes nicked on their periphery a helical pattern for
chip breaking and smooth operation.
II. SIDE MILLING CUTTERS
 This cutter is similar to plain cutter except that it has teeth on the
side. However, side-milling cutter may have teeth on the periphery
and on one or (more) both sides of the tool.
 These cutters may have straight, spiral or staggered teeth.
 Further these may be solid, inserted blade or tipped construction.
III. END MILLING CUTTERS
 These cutters have an integral shaft for driving and have teeth on
both periphery and ends.
 These are used to mill flat, horizontal, vertical, bevel, chamber and
slant surfaces, grooves and keyways.
 The end mill cutter has either taper shank or straight shank.
IV. FACE MILLING CUTTERS
 Face milling cutter is a disc-shaped, with cutting blades around
the body and the side face.
 Such cutter is specialized in cutting larger plane.
 The blade face is wider, and the cutter body is made of general tool
steel, then embedded high-speed steel or carbide blade
V. METAL SLITTING CUTTERS

 These are used for cutting thin plate or for cutting off
 They are manufactured in two types –
a. Plain slitting saws
b. Staggered teeth saw
VI. ANGLE MILLING CUTTERS
 These cutters carry sharp angular teeth which are neither parallel
nor normal to their axis.
 Their specific use is in milling v-grooves, notches; dovetail slot,
reamer teeth and other angular surfaces.
 The two types:

a) Single angle cutters

b) Double angle cutters

VII.FORM MILLING CUTTERS

 They are also called as form relieved milling cutters or a radius

cutters.
 This category includes a fairly large variety of milling cutters used
for producing different shaped contours.
 Their common types are as follows –

a. Corner rounding cutters

b. Concave & convex cutters

c. Gear cutter

d. Tap & reamer flat cutters

e. Gear hobs

f. Thread milling cutters

VIII.T-SLOT MILLING CUTTER

 It is a single operation cutter which is used only for cutting T-slots.

 In operation the narrow groove at the top is first milled by means
of end milling cutter.
 The T- slot milling cutter is then employed for milling the wider
grove.
IV. Shaper and Planer
 Shaping and planing are similar operations, both involving the use
of a single-point cutting tool moved linearly relative to the work
part.
 In conventional shaping and planing, a straight, flat surface is
created by this action.
 In shaping, the speed motion is accomplished by moving the
cutting tool; while in planing, the speed motion is accomplished by
moving the work part.
 Shaping is performed on a machine tool called a shaper.
 The motion of the ram consists of a forward stroke to achieve the
cut, and a return stroke during which the tool is lifted slightly to
clear the work and then reset for the next pass

 Shaper machine working.mp4

 The machine tool for planing is a planer.
 Cutting speed is achieved by a reciprocating worktable that moves
the part past the single-point cutting tool.
 Planers can be classified as open side planers (single-column) and
double-column planers.

PLANER MACHINE WORKING - ANUNIVERSE 22 - YouTube.mp4

 Shaping and planing can be used to machine shapes other than flat
surfaces. The restriction is that the cut surface must be straight.

Figure (a) V- groove, (b) square groove, (c) T-slot, (d) dovetail slot,
and (e) gear teeth
V. Broaching
 Broaching is performed using a multiple-teeth cutting tool by moving
the tool linearly relative to the work in the direction of the tool axis.
 The machine tool is called a broaching machine, and the cutting tool
is called a broach.

Figure : The broaching operation

Vertical broaching.webm
 There are two principal types of broaching

I. External broaching is performed on the outside surface of the

work to create a certain cross-sectional shape on the surface.

II. Internal broaching is accomplished on the internal surface of

a hole in the part. Accordingly, a starting hole must be present
in the part so as to insert the broach at the beginning of the
broaching stroke.

broaching keyway.mp4
 Some of the shapes that can be produced by external and internal
broaching
VI. Grinding Machines
 Grinding machine is employed to obtain high accuracy along with
very high class of surface finish on the workpiece.
 Conventional grinding machines can be broadly classified as:

a) Surface grinding machine

b) Cylindrical grinding machine

c) Internal grinding machine

d) Tool and cutter grinding machine

Surface grinding machine
 This machine may be similar to a milling machine used mainly to
grind flat surface. However, some types of surface grinders are also
capable of producing contour surface with formed grinding wheel.
 Basically there are four different types of surface grinding
machines characterized by the movement of their tables and the
orientation of grinding wheel spindles as follows:

a) Horizontal spindle and reciprocating table

b) Vertical spindle and reciprocating table

c) Horizontal spindle and rotary table

d) Vertical spindle and rotary table

a b
 c d

Cylindrical grinding machine

 This machine is used to produce external cylindrical surface. The
surfaces may be straight, tapered, steps or profiled.
 Broadly there are three different types of cylindrical grinding
machine as follows:

1. Plain centre type cylindrical grinder

2. Universal cylindrical surface grinder

3. Centreless cylindrical surface grinder

 2
1

3
Internal grinding machine

 This machine is used to produce internal cylindrical surface. The

surface may be straight, tapered, grooved or profiled.
 Broadly there are three different types of internal grinding machine
as follows:

1. Chucking type internal grinder

2. Planetary internal grinder

3. Centreless internal grinder

 3

2
Tool and cutter grinder machine
 Tool grinding may be divided into two subgroups: tool
manufacturing and tool resharpening.
 There are many types of tool and cutter grinding machine to meet
these requirements.
 Simple single point tools are occasionally sharpened by hand on
bench or pedestal grinder.
 However, tools and cutters with complex geometry like milling
cutter, drills, reamers and hobs require sophisticated grinding
machine commonly known as universal tool and cutter grinder.
Grinding wheels

 Grinding wheel consists of hard abrasive grains called grits,

which perform the cutting or material removal, held in the weak
bonding matrix.
 A grinding wheel commonly identified by the type of the abrasive
material used.
 The conventional wheels include aluminium oxide and silicon
carbide wheels while diamond and cBN (cubic boron nitride)
wheels fall in the category of super abrasive wheel.
Marking system for conventional grinding wheel:

 The standard marking system for conventional abrasive wheel can

be as follows:

51 A 60 K 5 V 05, where
 The number ‘51’ is manufacturer’s identification number
indicating exact kind of abrasive used.
 The letter ‘A’ denotes that the type of abrasive is aluminium oxide.
In case of silicon carbide the letter ‘C’ is used.
 The number ‘60’ specifies the average grit size in inch mesh. For a
very large size grit this number may be as small as 6 where as for a
very fine grit the designated number may be as high as 600.
 The letter ‘K’ denotes the hardness of the wheel, which means the
amount of force required to pull out a single bonded abrasive grit
by bond fracture. The letter symbol can range between ‘A’ and ‘Z’,
‘A’ denoting the softest grade and ‘Z’ denoting the hardest one.
 The number ‘5’ denotes the structure or porosity of the wheel. This
number can assume any value between 1 to 20, ‘1’ indicating high
porosity and ‘20’ indicating low porosity.
 The letter code ‘V’ means that the bond material used is vitrified.
The codes for other bond materials used in conventional abrasive
wheels are B (resinoid), BF (resinoid reinforced), E(shellac),
O(oxychloride), R(rubber), RF (rubber reinforced), S(silicate)
 The number ‘05’ is a wheel manufacturer’s identifier.
 Selection of grinding wheel means selection of composition of the
grinding wheel and this depends upon the following factors:

1) Physical and chemical characteristics of the work

material

2) Grinding conditions

3) Type of grinding (stock removal grinding or form finish

grinding)