Conductors and

Insulators
1. As the gage increases the
diameter and circular area
decreases.
2. The circular area doubles for
every three gage size.
3.The higher the gage number,
the thinner the wire, the
greater the resistance of the
wire for any given length.
 Standard American Wire Gage
 Circular mil (cmil) –
cross sectional area of
round wire.
 1 mil = 0.001”

 X cmil = d2 (mil)

Example:
d = 0.005 in = 5mil
Circular mil = (5 mil)2
Area = 25 cmil
TYPES OF WIRE
CONDUCTOR
 Solid Wire
Solid wire is made of only
one conductor. If bent or
flexed repeatedly, solid wire
may break. Therefore solid
wire is used in places where
bending and flexing is not
encountered. House wiring
is a good example of the use
of solid wire.
 Stranded Wire
Stranded wire is made up of several
individual strands put together in a
braid. Some uses for stranded wire
include telephone cords, extension
cords, and speaker wire, to name a
few. Stranded wire is flexible, easier
to handle, and less likely to develop
an open break. Sizes for stranded
wire are equivalent to the sum of the
areas for the individual strands.
 Braided Wire
The braided conductor is
used for very low resistance.
It is wide or low R and thin
for flexibility, and the
braiding provides many
strands. A common
application is a grounding
connection, which must have
very low R.
 Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable with an outside diameter of
¼ in. is generally used for the signals in
cable tv. In construction, there is an inner
solid wire, insulated from metallic braid
that serves as the other conductor. The
entire assembly is covered by an outer
plastic jacket. In operation, the inner
conductor has the desired signal voltage
with respect to ground, and the metallic
braid is connected to ground to shield
the inner conductor against interference.
Coaxial cable, therefore, is a shielded
type of transmission line.
 Twin – Lead Wire
With twin-lead wire, two
conductors are embedded
in plastic to provide
constant spacing. This
type of line is commonly
used in television for
connecting the antenna to
the receiver.
 Ribbon Cable Wire
(also known as multi-
wire planar cable) is a
cable with many
conducting wires
running parallel to
each other on the
same flat plane. As a
result the cable is
wide and flat. Its
name comes from its
resemblance to a
piece of ribbon.
Connectors
 Spade Lug

The spade lug is

often used for
screw-type
terminals.
 Alligator Clip
The alligator clip is
convenient for a
temporary
connection.
Alligator clips come
in small and large
sizes.
 Banana Pins

The banana pins

in have spring-
type sides that
make a tight
connection.
 Terminal Strip
The terminal
strip provides
a block for
multiple
solder
connections.
 RCA – Type Plug
The RCA (Radio Corp of
America)-type plug is
commonly used for shielded
cables with audio equipment.
The inner conductor of the
shielded cable is connected to
the center pin of the plug, and
the cable braid is connected to
the shield. Both connections
must be soldered.
 Phone Plug
The phone plug is still used in
many applications but usually
in a smaller size. The ring is
insulated from the sleeve to
provide for two connections.
There may be a separate tip,
ring, and sleeve for three
connections. The sleeve is
usually the ground side.
 F Connector
The plug is called
an F connector.
It is
universally used in
cable television
because of its
convenience.
 Multiple Pin
A multiple pin
connector having many
conductors. This type
of connector is often
used to connect the
components of a
computer system, such
as the monitor and the
keyboard, to the
computer.
 Spring Loaded Metal Hook
A spring-loaded metal
hook as a grabber for a
temporary connection to
a circuit. This type of
connector is often used
with the test leads of a
VOM or a DMM.
 Printed Wiring
Electronic circuits are
mounted on a plastic or
fiberglass insulating board
with printed wiring. This is
a printed-circuit (PC) or
printed-wiring (PW) board.
One side has the
components, such as
resistors, capacitors, coils,
transistors, diodes, and
integrated-circuit (IC)
units.
 Printed Wiring
The other side has the
conducting paths printed
with silver or copper on the
board, instead of using
wires. On a double sided
board, the component side
also has printed wiring.
Sockets, small metal eyelets,
or holes in the board are
used to connect the
components to the wiring.
A small crack in the printed wiring acts like
an open circuit preventing current flow.
Cracks can be repaired by soldering a short
length of bare wire over the open circuit. If
a larger section of printed wiring is open, or
if the board is cracked, you can bridge the
open circuit with a length of hookup wire
soldered at two convenient end terminals
of the printed wiring. In many electronic
industries, special kits are available for
replacing damaged or open traces on PC
boards.
 Switches
A switch is a component that
allows us to control whether the
current is on or off in a circuit. A
closed switch has practically zero
resistance, whereas an open
switch has nearly infinite
resistance.
 Closed Switch
With the switch closed, a
complete path for current
is provided and the light
is on . Since the switch
has very low resistance
when it is closed, all of
the source voltage is
across the load, with 0 V
across the closed contacts
of the switch.
 Open Switch
With the switch open, the
path for current is
interrupted and the bulb
does not light. Since the
switch has very high
resistance when it is
open, all of the source
voltage is across the open
switch contacts, with 0 V
across the load.
Pole - is defined as the number
of completely isolated circuits
that can be controlled by the
switch.
Throw - is defined as the
number of closed contact
positions that exist per pole.
 FUSE
Slow – Blow Fuses
These have coiled construction. They are
designed to open only on a continued
overload, such as a short circuit. The purpose
of coiled construction is to prevent the fuse
from blowing on a temporary current surge. As
an example, a slow-blow fuse will hold a 400%
overload in current for up to 2 s. Circuits with
an electric motor use slow-blow fuses because
the starting current of a motor is much more
than its running current.
Circuit Breakers
A circuit breaker can be used in place of a
fuse to protect circuit components and wiring
against the high current caused by a short
circuit. It is constructed of a thin bimetallic strip
that expands with heat and in turn trips open
the circuit. The advantage of a circuit breaker
is that it can be reset once the bimetallic strip
cools down and the short circuit has been
removed. Because they can be reset, almost
all new residential house wiring is protected by
circuit breakers rather than fuses.
Properties of Conducting Materials
 Wire Resistance
R = ρl/ A
R – total resistance (Ω)
ρ – specific resistance (cmil
–Ω/ft)
l – length (ft)
A – cross sectional area (cmil)
 Sample problem

How much is the

resistance of a 100 ft of
no. 20 gage copper
wire?
Temperature Coefficient of Resistance

Rt = Ro + Ro(α Δt)
Rt - total resistance (Ω)
Ro - resistance at 20°C
α - temperature coefficient
Δt - change in temp.
α is positive it means that
R increases with
temperature;
α is negative R
decreases;
α is zero means that R is
constant
 Sample Problem

A tungsten wire has a

14-Ω R at 20°C.
Calculate its resistance
at 120°C.
 Hot Resistance
Because resistance wire is made of
tungsten, Nichrome, iron, or nickel, there
is usually a big difference in the amount of
resistance the wire has when hot in
normal operation and when cold without
its normal load current. The reason is
that the resistance increases
with higher temperatures, since
these materials have a positive
temperature coefficient.
 Superconductivitiy
The effect opposite to hot resistance occurs
when cooling a metal down to very low
temperatures to reduce its resistance. Near
absolute zero, 0 K or –273°C, some metals
abruptly lose practically all their
resistance. As an example, when cooled by
liquid helium, the metal tin becomes
superconductive at 3.7 K. Tremendous
currents can be produced, resulting in very
strong electromagnetic fields. Such work
at very low temperatures, near absolute
zero, is called cryogenics.
Ions, Ion Current and Insulators
Solid – atoms do not move easily -conduction of
electricity take place by the drift of electrons
Liquid and Gas – atoms move easily- gain or lose
electrons
Ion – charged atoms- results from loss or gain of
electrons
 same as electrons, opposite attract, same charge

repel.
Ionization Current - movement of ions results in
conduction of electricity, creating motion of ion
charges
 same direction with the direction of current flow
Insulator - An insulator maintains its charge
because electrons cannot flow to neutralize the
charge. The insulators are commonly called
dielectric materials, which means that they can
store a charge.
Among the best insulators, or dielectrics, are
air, vacuum, rubber, wax, shellac, glass, mica,
porcelain, oil, dry paper, textile fibers, and
plastics such as Bakelite, Formica, and
polystyrene. Pure water is a good insulator,
but saltwater is not.
For any insulator, a high enough
voltage can be applied to break
down the internal structure of
the material, forcing the
dielectric to conduct. This
dielectric breakdown is usually
the result of an arc, which
ruptures the physical structure of
the material, making it useless as
an insulator.
 Insulator Dicharges Current
1. Conduction through a conducting path.
2. Brush discharge. As an example, high voltage
on a sharp pointed wire can discharge
through the surrounding atmosphere by
ionization of the air molecules. This may be
visible in the dark as a bluish or reddish glow,
called the corona effect.
3. Spark discharge. This is a result of breakdown
in the insulator because of a high potential
difference that ruptures the dielectric. The
current that flows across the insulator at the
instant of breakdown causes the spark.