AUTOMOBILE

ENGINEERING UNIT 3
Lecture-01
Braking System
 Factors in Vehicle dynamics
• Within many modern vehicle suspension there are many factors to
consider during design and development
• Factors in vehicle dynamics:
• Vehicle configuration
• Vehicle type (i.e. Sedan, Minivan, trucks etc)
• Vehicle Architecture ( ex. FWD vs RWD, 2WD vs 4WD etc)
• Chassis Architecture (ex Type: Tabular etc, material: steel, aluminium etc)
• Front suspension system type (ex MacPherson strut, Double wishbone etc)
• Type of steering actuator (ex Rack and pinion, recirculating ball etc)
• Type of braking system (ex. Disc and drum brakes etc)
• Rear Suspension system type (ex. Beam axle, Multi link etc)
• Suspension/Braking control system (ex. ABS, Electronic stability control etc)
• Factors in Vehicle dynamics (continued):
• Vehicle Suspension Geometry
• Vehicle wheelbase
• Vehicle track width front and rear
• Wheels and tires
• Vehicle weight and distribution
• Vehicle centre of gravity
• Sprung and un-sprung weight
• Springs motion ratio
• Chassis ride height and static deflection
• Turning circle or Turning radius
Load vs Weight
• In automobiles, Load transfer is the imaginary “shifting” of weight
Transfer
around a motor vehicle during acceleration (both lateral and
longitudinal)
• This includes braking or deceleration.
• Load transfer is a crucial concept in understanding vehicle dynamics
• Often load transfer is misguidedly referred to as weight transfer due to
their close relationship.
• The difference being load transfer is an imaginary shift in weight due
to an imbalance of forces, while weight transfer involves the actual
movement of the vehicle’s centre of gravity.
• Both results in a redistribution of the total vehicle load between the
individual tires.
• Weight transfer involves the actual (small) movement of the vehicle
Centre of Gravity relative to wheel axes due to displacement of liquids
within the vehicle which results in a re-distribution of total vehicle
load between the individual tires
• Liquids, such as fuel, readily flow within their containers causing
changes in the vehicle’s CG. As fuel is consumed, not only does the
position of the CG change, but the total weight of the vehicle is also
reduced.
• Another factor that changes the vehicle’s CG is the expansion of the
tires during rotation.
• This is called dynamic rolling radius and is effected by wheel-speed,
temperature, inflation pressure and tire construction.
• It raises the vehicle’s CG slightly as the wheel speed increases.
• Imagine we’re approaching the corner and we begin to
brake. The front suspension is compressed and we feel
the front of the car go down – this is called dive
• When the car turns, towards the outside tyre: Roll.
• As we begin to accelerate, will move towards an even
spread across the rear axle. You can feel this movement
whenever you accelerate in your car; it is called squat.
Brake efficiency & stopping
• F = μW
distance
• If u = 1, F = W, which is equal to gravitational force experienced
by the freely falling body of mass equal to that of the vehicle
• In this case, the vehicle experience a deceleration equal to
the acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ & brakes are said to be 100 %
efficient.
• Thus theoretical limit for brake η = 100 %
• Highly efficient brakes gives large deceleration, which might
injure the passengers due to sudden stopping of the vehicle
• Rapid wear of tyre and brake linings takes place and there is always a risk of
loosing vehicle control during braking
• Minimum allowable limit of brake efficiency for any vehicle is 50 % for foot
brakes and 30 % for hand brakes
AUTOMOBILE
ENGINEERING UNIT 3
Lecture-02
Braking System
• Note: in case of vehicle moving up the incline, the angle θ may be
taken as +ve and same expressions may be used.

• Question: A car weigh 13 KN & has a wheel base of 2.5 m. The centre
of gravity of car is 1.2 m in front of rear axle and 800 mm above the
ground level. The car is having brakes on all four wheels. The
coefficient of adhesion between road and the wheel is 0.5. If the car is
moving up the incline, whose sine angle is 0.1, Calculate:
• Load distribution between front and rear axle
• Distance at which it can be stopped while going at a speed of 50 Km/hr when
only rear wheel brakes are used.
Braking –
fundamentals
• A brake system is designed to slow and halt the motion of vehicle.
• To do this, various components within the brake system
must convert vehicle’s moving energy into heat.
• This is done by using friction.
• Two forms of friction play a part in controlling a vehicle: Kinetic or
moving, and static or stationary
• The amount of friction or resistance to movement depends upon the
type of material in contact, the smoothness of their rubbing surfaces
and the pressure holding them together.
AUTOMOBILE
ENGINEERING UNIT 3
Lecture-03
Braking System
 What are Brakes?
• Brakes are one of the most important component in a vehicle.
• If you talk about performance it includes good brakes also, because if
you go fast you need the same amount of stopping power to reduce
that speed.
• It is a mechanical device that absorbs energy from a moving system.
• It is used to slow or stop a moving vehicle, which is mostly
accomplished by means of friction.
There are basically three types of brakes used in automobiles
• 1. Mechanical brakes
• 2. Hydraulic brakes
• 3. Air Brakes and related type of brakes
Mechanical braking system
• It is the type of braking system in which the brake force applied on the
brake pedal is carried to the final brake drum or disc rotor by the various
mechanical linkages like cylindrical rods, fulcrums, springs etc. In order to
stop the vehicle.
• Mechanical brakes all act by generating frictional forces as two surfaces
rub against each other.
• The stopping power or capacity of a brake depends largely on the surface
area of frictional surfaces as well as on the actuation force applied.
• Types of Brakes:
• DRUM BRAKES
• DISC BRAKE
• HAND BRAKES
Construction
• Brake plates are bolted to steering knuckle
• The back plate is made of pressed steel sheet and is ribbed to increase
rigidity and to provide support to expander and brake shoes
• It also protects the drum and shoe assembly from mud and dust
• Itabsorbs complete torque reaction of the shoes due to which it
is sometimes called “torque plate”
• The brake shoes are anchored at one end and force is applied at other
end by means of brake actuating mechanism
• The relative braking torque obtained at the shoes for the same
force applied at the pedal varies depending upon:
• Whether the expander is fixed to the back plate or it is floating
• Whether anchor is fixed or floating
• Whether the shoes are leading or trailing
• Two leading shoe type
• It experiences an added braking force of “self energization” ie. If both shoes
are made leading, it definitely increases the braking torque
• Lining wear is also uniform
• NOTE:- When vehicle is moving in reverse, both the shoes
will become trailing shoe and braking effect is considerably decreased
• Two trailing shoe type
• Braking effort is decreased for the same force applied as in case of two leading
shoes
• That is why, this type of brake is used generally with servo brakes or power
brakes so that the driver is not fatigued

• Factors influencing braking effect

• Radius of brake drum and retarding force produced on ground
• Area of the brake lining and the amount of pressure applied at the brake lining
• Coefficient of friction between braking surfaces and between the tyre and road
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ApuBEn2zct8
 • WL and WT - Actual force for leading and trailing shoe
• R- Radius of brake drum

Theoretical • Rf- Effective radius of friction force PT or PL

• PT & PL- Normal forces between shoes and drum

Analysis • θ- Angle between the line of action of the

frictional force and the line joining the centre of
• brake drum
μB- Coefficient of friction between the brake lining and
drum
AUTOMOBILE
ENGINEERING UNIT 3
Lecture-04
Braking System
 Disc
•brakes
Disc brake got its name from the circular-shaped plate or disc; onto
which the disc brake parts are mounted.
• A conventional Disc Brake system consists of a brake disc, two friction
pads, and brake caliper.
• In the Disc brake system; the friction pads apply grip on the external
surface of the disc to perform braking.
• The disc brake consists of:
• A circular disc made of - cast iron in cars and steel in two-wheeler
• A caliper assembly consisting of hydraulic pistons
• A pair of brake pads (one each on either side)
• Bleed screw
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DRUM BRAKES AND DISC BRAKES

• In disc brakes, friction surfaces are directly exposed to the cooling air but
in drum brakes, friction occurs on the internal surfaces from which heat
can be dissipated only after it has passed by conduction through drum
• The disc brakes are completely self-adjusting
• This brake system also has better stopping power than the drum brake.
• We can check wear without dismantling the unit in disc brakes
• Easy & quick to replacement of pads compared to Drum brakes
• Disc brakes weigh less than 20% to drum brakes
Hydraulic
Brakes
• It is an arrangement of braking mechanism which uses brake fluid to
transfer pressure from the controlling mechanism to the braking
mechanism
• A hydraulic braking system transmits brake-pedal force to the wheel
brakes through pressurized fluid, converting the fluid pressure into
useful work of braking at the wheels
 Why hydraulic braking
•system?
The responses from the brake pedal to the final braking must be
very quick which was a failure of a mechanical type braking system
• It is very well achieved by the hydraulic braking system which provides
quick braking
• The brake force generated by hydraulic braking system is very high
• Very important factor for today’s super and hyper series of vehicles
• Frictional wear and tear in case of mechanical braking system is
very high due to the involvement of many moving parts
• Hydraulic braking system has very less moving parts
• Brake failure chances in case of hydraulic braking system is very
less
• due to direct connection between the actuator ( brake pedal or lever)
and the brake disc or drum
• Design complexity in case of mechanical braking is very high
Types
• Hydraulic braking system are classified as
• On the basis of frictional contact mechanism
• Drum brake or internal expanding hydraulic brakes
• Disc brakes or external contracting hydraulic brakes
• On the basis of brake force distribution
• Single acting hydraulic brakes
• Dual acting hydraulic brakes
Constructional
Details
Working of a Hydraulic Braking
System1. Drum Hydraulic Brake
• Due to the movement or actuation of brake pedal the connecting rod
attached in between pedal and piston of a master cylinder moves
• which in turn pushes the master cylinder’s piston inside the master
cylinder just like a medical syringe
• Due to this movement of the piston inside the master cylinder the
compression of brake fluid inside the master cylinder takes place
• which in turn provides the conversion of mechanical energy into
hydraulic pressure.
• This highly compressed brake fluid from the master cylinder moves
inside the brake and the transfer of this hydraulic pressure from
master cylinder to the brake drum takes place
• When this high pressure brake fluid enters the wheel cylinder or
drum cylinder, due to its high pressure, movement in the cylinder
piston takes place which in turn expands the stationary brake shoes
attached to it
• Due to the expansion of the brake shoes frictional contact between
brake shoes and drum lining (the rotating drum part) is made which
in turn converts the kinetic energy of the vehicle into heat energy
and finally braking occurs
2. Disc Hydraulic Brake
• When the driver applies brake in a disc type hydraulic brakes the
process involved is same as drum hydraulic bakes up to when the high
pressure brake fluid enters the brake lines but differ a bit after that :-
• The high pressure brake fluid from the brake lines enters the disc calliper
cylinder of a disc brake system
• This high pressure brake fluid cause’s movement in the calliper cylinder’s
piston which in turn causes the movement of the brake pad attached to
the piston inside the calliper
• Due to this movement of brake pad the clamping of the rotating disc rotor
takes place and due to this frictional contact between brake pads and the
rotating disc rotor, conversion of vehicle’s kinetic energy into heat energy
takes place which in turn stops or de accelerate the vehicle
3.Single Acting Disc Type Braking- The working of single acting disc
type hydraulic braking is exactly same as mentioned above, in this
type of braking single wheel or a single pair of wheels gets the braking
force
4.Double Acting Disc Type Braking- In double acting disc type hydraulic
brake the high pressure brake fluid from the master cylinder is
distributed in 2 directions i.e. both the wheels in bikes and all wheels
in cars due to the use of tandem master cylinder ( refer to the article
on master cylinder)
 What is Master
• ItCylinder?
is a hydraulic device in which cylinder and one or two pistons are
arranged in such a manner that the mechanical force applied by the
driver of a vehicle either by brake pedal (in cars) or by brake lever (in
bikes) is converted into hydraulic pressure which in turn transferred to
the brake calliper for braking
• In hydraulic braking system, master cylinder is a device that provides
required amount of pressure or braking force to the final braking
components after multiplication of the mechanical force applied by
the driver through brake pedal or brake lever
Master
Cylinder
Types of Master
Cylinder
• 1. Single Circuit Master Cylinder
• In this type of master cylinder single piston inside a cylinder is used to cause
braking
• It distributes equal force in all the wheels
• This type of master cylinder is commonly used in many 2 wheelers and some
light weight 4 wheelers
• 2. Tandem Master Cylinder or Dual Circuit Master Cylinder
• In this dual cylinder-dual piston or single cylinder dual piston along with
dual circuit is used for independent braking between front and rear
wheels
• This type of master cylinder is used in almost all cars as it is more
efficient than single circuit
• It provides the independency between front and rear wheels braking
 Application of Hydraulic
•Braking
Drum Type Hydraulic Brakes- They are used in some low
speed four wheelers like Tata Ace
• Disc Type Hydraulic Brakes- They are widely used in almost all
the cars like Maruti Suzuki swift, Hyundai i20 etc and also in
bikes like Bajaj pulsar 180, Ktm Duke 390 etc
• Single Acting Hydraulic Brakes- Front brakes of pulsar 180 is of
single acting type
• Dual Acting Hydraulic Brakes – All the cars mentioned above
Pressure Differential Valve
• The pressure differential valve — or pressure differential switch as it’s
also called — is a key part of your brakes' in-built safety system.
• The pressure differential valve can be found just beneath the master
cylinder.
• Itconstantly measures the pressure within the two halves of the
master cylinder.
• Each of these halves controls a different pair of brakes.
 Proportioning
•Valve
When traffic conditions force you to stop short, a greater percentage
of your car's weight and momentum shifts toward the front.
• As the disc brakes engaged sharply, your car would be in danger of
tipping forward.
• The proportioning valve ensures that the drum brakes engage before
the disc brakes, which allows you to remain in full control of your car
as it slows.
• At the same time, the proportioning valve decreases the amount of
hydraulic pressure going to the rear brakes. This prevents the rear
brakes from locking up
 Bleed of hydraulic
•brakes
The procedure of driving out the air of the braking system is
called bleeding

• BRAKE Fluid: Essential characteristics required for braking fluid.

 Composition of brake
•fluid
In the beginning, the brake fluids consisted mainly of ethyl-alcohol
and caster oil
• But the same has poor low temperature properties (low boiling point)
• The modern brake fluid contains polyglycols as lubricant and glycol
ethers as the diluents and posses all properties listed above
• Silicon based brake fluid: has wider operating range of temperature.
• But it is more costly and causes more wear of hydraulic system
• In case of emergencies: a mixture of 40 to 50 % by weight of caster oil
and 50 to 60 % by weight of butyl alcohol could be used fairly
satisfactorily
• Any petroleum liquid should never be used as brake fluid
AUTOMOBILE
ENGINEERING UNIT 3
Lecture-05
Braking System
 Electric
•Brakes
Not very popular as service brakes
• Have been commonly used in Trailers
• Electric brakes are devices that use an electrical current or magnetic
actuating force to slow or stop the motion of a rotating component
 Workin
•gThe magnet in the backing plate has 2 conductor wires which
tap directly into the wiring.
• When electricity is on, it magnetizes the brake magnet.
• The magnet is attracted to the drum face.
• When it contacts this area, the friction causes it to rotate, which
moves the actuating arm, and pushes the shoes out against the drum.
• Those shoes have a special brake pad material on them that resists
the heat caused by that friction.
• When the shoes press against the inside of the drum, they prevent
the hub, and consequently the wheel that's touching the ground from
spinning.
Advantages of Electric Brakes
• Operating linkage is much simplified
• Less time lag between pressing of brake pedal & application of brakes
at the wheels
 Power
•Brakes
The power of engine and/or battery power is used to enhance
the braking effort
• These are basically are four types
• Vacuum brakes
• Air brakes
• Brakes with hydraulic boosters
• Brakes with electro-hydraulic boosters
NOTE:The hydraulic booster systems usually employ pressure from
the power- steering system to increase the pressure on master cylinder
• Electro hydraulic booster system use an electric motor to pressure the hydraulic
system beyond the brake pedal
• The advantage of this system is that, even if engine fails, the power
brakes would function as long as battery power is available
• In case of vacuum brakes, vacuum from the inlet manifold is utilized,
due to which the vacuum power brakes would not function, if the
engine is not working
Servo Braking
System
• Servo Mechanism
• Any mechanism which adds to the driver’s effort in applying the brakes is
called servo-mechanism
• As weight of the vehicle increases, more braking effort is required
• When a limit is reached, above which, it is not possible for an ordinary driver
to apply the effort needed
• Beyond this, the help of servo-action or self-energization of brake is taken
• Vacuum Servo Brakes
• A vacuum servo is a component used on motor vehicles in their braking
system, to provide assistance to the driver by decreasing the braking effort
• Working:
• In this, the suction from the engine manifold inlet is utilized for
brake application
•A small reservoir is there to provide enough vacuum for several
brake applications even after the engine has stopped
• Vacuum Servo Brakes are of two types
• In the first type, both sides of the piston are exposed to atmosphere
when brakes are in released position
• For applying brakes, engine vacuum is applied on one side of the
piston, subjection same to differential pressure and thus operating the linkage
• In the second type, both sides of the piston are subjected to
engine vacuum in the brakes released position
• To apply brakes, one side is exposed to atmosphere which provide the
desired force on the piston
 Engine Exhaust
Brakes
• This braking system actually closes down the exhaust path and it stops
the gases from being eliminated on the exhaust pipe
• As a result, back-pressure is built in the manifold and in the cylinders,
making the engine work backwards and subsequently slowing down the
vehicle
NOTE: This type of brake is used as auxiliary brakes
• This brake is very effective below vehicle speed of 40 kmph
• It must me remembered that, it cannot stop the vehicle like a service
brake
• The exhaust brake comes into picture when the driver releases the
fuel throttle
• A signal to the butterfly valve goes which partially closes it (blocking
the exhaust)
• So, the pressure starts building inside the manifold & then the cylinder
• That actually retards the movement of the piston
• Crankshaft retards
• Flywheel retards
• Gearbox stops
• Propeller shaft stops
• Power to differential stops
• Axle slow down……then Braking achieved
Advantages
• They keep wheel brakes from overheating
• They are quiet, unlike compression brakes
• It avoids the chances of engine over-run
 Air
•Brakes
Its operation is similar to hydraulic brakes except that in this
case compressed air is used to apply brakes instead of hydraulic
pressure
• Air brakes are commonly used on heavy vehicles like trucks
Anti Lock Braking System
(ABS)
• ABS prevents the wheels from locking up, thus avoiding
uncontrolled skidding of the vehicle and decreases the distance
travelled without slipping
ABS Working
principle
• It prevents the wheels from locking up, thus avoiding uncontrolled
skidding
• ABS generally offers improved vehicle control and decreases stopping
distances on dry and slippery surfaces
• ABS modifies the brake fluid pressure, independent of the amount of
pressure being applied on the brakes, to bring the speed of the wheel
back to the minimum slip level that is mandatory for optimal braking
performance
ABS has four major components:
• Speed Sensor
• It monitors the speed of each wheel and determines the
necessary acceleration and deceleration of the wheels
• Valves
• It regulate the air pressure to the brakes during the ABS action
• Electronic Control Unit (ECU)
• It receives, amplifies and filters the sensor signals for calculating the wheel
rotational speed and acceleration
• It receives a signal from the sensors in the circuit and controls the
brake pressure, according to the data that is analyzed by the unit
• Hydraulic Control Unit
• It receives signals from the ECU to apply or release the brakes under the anti-
lock conditions
AUTOMOBILE
ENGINEERING UNIT 3
Lecture-06
Suspension System
 Chassis and Suspension
•System
Chassis is the frame which holds both the car body and the power train
• Various mechanical parts like the engine and the drive train, the axle
assemblies including the wheels, the suspension parts, the brakes, the
steering components, etc., are bolted onto the chassis
• The chassis provides the strength needed for supporting the different
vehicular components as well as the payload and helps to keep the
automobile rigid and stiff
• Consequently, the chassis is also an important component of the
overall safety system
 Various loads acting on the frame
•are
Short duration Load – While crossing a broken patch
• Momentary duration Load – While taking a curve
• Impact Loads – Due to the collision of the vehicle
• Inertia Load – While applying brakes
• Static Loads – Loads due to chassis parts
• Over Loads – Beyond Design capacity

• We can see there are different types of loads acting on a body, so for
different loads we have different types of bodies and they are
differentiated on various types
DIFFERENT BODIES USED IN
AUTOMOBILES
• According to Chassis design the body:
• Conventional Type
• Integral Type
• Semi- Integral Type
• According to other usage:
• Light vehicle Bodies – cars, jeeps
• Heavy vehicle Bodies – Busses, Lorries
• Medium vehicle Bodies – Vans, Meta Doors
The body of the most vehicle should fulfil the following
requirements
• The body should be light
• It should have minimum number of components
• It should provide sufficient space for passengers and luggage
• It should withstand vibrations while in motion
• It should offer minimum resistance to air
• It should be cheap and easy in manufacturing
• It should be attractive in shape and colour
• It should have uniformly distributed load
• It should have long fatigue life
• It should provide good vision and ventilation
Defects in
Frames
• The major defect which occurs in the frame is misalignment due to
accidents
• The possible cause for the frame to be out of alignment are:
• Cracks
• Dislocated parts
• Broken welds
• Buckling
 Car suspension
•System
Suspension is the system of tires, tire air, springs, shockabsorbers and
linkages that connects a vehicle to its wheels and allows relative motion
between the two
• Suspension systems must support both road holding/handling and ride
quality
• The suspension also protects the vehicle itself and any cargo or
luggage from damage and wear
• The basic components of a suspension system are as follows:
• CONTROL ARM:- a movable lever that fastens the steering knuckle to the
vehicle frame or body
• CONTROL ARM BUSHING:- a sleeve, which allows the control arm to move up
and down on the frame
• STRUT ROD:- prevents the control arm from swinging to the front or rear of the
vehicle
• BALL JOINTS:- a swivel joint that allows the control arm and steering knuckle to
move up and down, as well as side to side
• SHOCK ABSORBER or STRUT:-keeps the suspension from continuing to
bounce after spring compression and extension
• STABILIZER BAR:- limits body roll of the vehicle during cornering
• SPRING:- supports the weight of the vehicle; permits the control arm and wheel
to move up and down
• The components of the suspension system perform six basic functions:
• Maintain correct vehicle ride height
• Reduce the effect of shock forces
• Maintain correct wheel alignment
• Support vehicle weight
• Keep the tyres in contact with the road
• Control the vehicle's direction of travel
Springs: three different spring types are used in suspension systems:
coil, leaf and torsion bar

• Coil springs are merely wound torsion bars

• They are commonly used because they are compact, easily mounted and
have excellent endurance life properties
• Leaf springs are long thin members that are loaded in bending
• They are used as an assembly being comprised of several layers of thin
metal to obtain the correct spring rate
• Leaf springs serve as both the damping member and the linkage
• Torsion bars rely on the twist of a long bar to provide a spring rate to
dampen car shock loading
• Torsion bars mount across the bottom portion of a vehicle and are more difficult
to package than others
• Shock Absorbers: It uses a piston and cylinder along with adjustable
valves to control the flow of hydraulic fluid to set the damping force in
both the retract (jounce) and extend (rebound) positions
• Shock absorbers are set to retract under a lower force than to extend
• This action absorbs road bump forces and dampens spring oscillations resulting
in better vehicle ride and control
• Difference between springs and shock absorbers
• Basically, spring provides the necessary movement of wheels while the shock
absorber act as vibration damper for the spring

• Types of Suspension System

Following are the 2 types of suspension system
• Front End Suspension System
• Rear End Suspension System
1. Front End Suspension
System
• The function of a vehicle’s suspension system is to maximize friction between the
tires and the road surface, which allows for steering stability with good handling
and ride comfort
• The front end suspension is more complicated than the rear end suspension
because the front wheels not only move up and down with respect to the car
frame but also swing at various angles to the car frame for steering
• Why are front end suspension services necessary?
•
Front end suspension components are significant contributor to
ride comfort, and also vehicle safety.
• When suspension parts fail, the vehicle can become
less responsive and difficult to handle.
• Faulty front end suspension components can also
cause premature failure of other vehicle components, including
tires.
• Types of Front End Suspensions System
• Rigid axle front suspension
• Independent front suspension
• Rigid Axle Front Suspension
• In this type of suspension, the front wheel hubs rotate on antifriction
bearings on steering spindle which are attached to the steering
knuckles
• To permit the wheels to be turned by the steering gear, the steering
spindle and steering knuckle assemblies are hinged on the axle ends
• The pin that forms the pivot of this hinge is usually referred to as the
kingpin or steering knuckle pin
• Where the forked portion is integral with the steering knuckle and
fits over the end of the axle, the construction is known as Reverse
Elliot
• Independent Front Suspension
• In this type of suspension, each front wheel is independently supported by a
coil, torsion bar, or leaf spring
• Types of Independent Front Suspension
• Twin I-Beam Suspension System
• Single I-Beam Front Suspension System
• Independent Front End Suspension Using Torsion Bar
• Parallelogram Type Independent Front Suspension
• Coil Spring Front Suspension
There are 3 types of coil spring front suspension
• In the first type, the coil spring is located between the upper and lower control
arms
• The lower control arm has one point of attachment to the car frame.
• In the second type, the coil spring is located between the upper and
lower control arms
• The lower control arms have two points to the attachment to the car
frame
• In the third type, the coil spring is between the upper control arm and
spring tower or housing that is part of front end sheet metal work
 2. Rear End Suspension
•System
Longitudinal leaf spring rear end suspension
• Transverse leaf spring rear end suspension
• Coil spring rear end suspension
Longitudinal and Transverse Leaf Spring Rear End Suspension
• Longitudinal leaf spring and coil spring rear end suspensions are widely used
in modern vehicles
• The spring weight is kept as less as possible, in order to improve the
side of the vehicle
• Longitudinal Leaf Spring

• Transverse Leaf Spring

 Coil Spring Rear End Suspension
• This type of suspension is always used in conjunction with torque tube,
torque reaction link, or torque rod drive
• Therefore the coil springs are not subjected to driving thrust or twist.
TYPES OF STARTER MOTORS
Inertia starters
• In all standard motor vehicle applications it is necessary to connect the
starter to the engine ring gear only during the starting phase
• The inertia type of starter motor is a four-pole, four-brush machine and
is used on small to medium-sized petrol engine vehicles
• It is capable of producing 9.6 Nm with a current draw of 350 A
• It has a face-type commutator and axially aligned brush gear
• The fields are wave wound and are earthed to the starter yoke
• The starter engages with the flywheel ring gear by means of a
small pinion
Working:
• When the starter is operated, via a remote relay, the armature
will cause the sleeve to rotate inside the pinion
• The pinion remains still due to its inertia and, because of the screwed
sleeve rotating inside it; the pinion is moved to mesh with the ring gear
• When the engine fires and runs under its own power, the pinion
is driven faster than the armature shaft
• This causes the pinion to be screwed back along the sleeve and out of
engagement with the flywheel
• In some applications the pinion tends to fall out of mesh when cranking
due to the engine almost, but not quite, running
Pre-engaged starters
• Pre-engaged starters are fitted to the majority of vehicles in use today
• They provide a positive engagement with the ring gear, as full power is
not applied until the pinion is fully in mesh
• They prevent premature ejection as the pinion is held into mesh by the
action of a solenoid
• A one-way clutch is incorporated into the pinion to prevent the starter
motor being driven by the engine
Permanent magnet starters
• The principle of operation is similar in most respects to the conventional
pre-engaged starter motor
• The difference is the replacement of field windings and pole shoes with high
quality permanent magnets
• The reduction in weight is in the region of 15% and the diameter of the yoke can
be reduced by a similar factor
• Permanent magnets provide constant excitation and it would be
reasonable to expect the speed and torque characteristic to be constant
• However, due to the fall in battery voltage under load and the low
resistance of the armature windings, the characteristic is comparable to
series wound motors.
Heavy vehicle starters
• The types of starter that are available for heavy duty applications are
many and are different as the applications they serve
• In general, higher voltages are used, which may be up to 110 V, and two
starters may even run in parallel for very high power and torque
requirements
• Large road vehicles are normally 24 V and employ a wide range of
starters
• In some cases the design is simply a large and heavy duty version of the
pre-engaged type
Lightening
System
• The lighting system of a motor vehicle consists of lighting and signalling
devices mounted or integrated to the front, rear, sides, and in some
cases the top of a motor vehicle
• This lights the roadway for the driver and increases the visibility of the
vehicle, allowing other drivers and pedestrians to see a vehicle's
presence, position, size, direction of travel, and the driver's intentions
regarding direction and speed of travel
• Emergency vehicles usually carry distinctive lighting equipment to warn
drivers and indicate priority of movement in traffic
Various lamps are grouped in separate circuits :
• Side and rear lamps including lamps for the number plate, glove
compartment and instrument panel illumination
• Main driving lamps (headlamps) incorporating a dipped facility to prevent
approaching drivers being dazzled
• Rear fog lamp(s) to guard the rear of the vehicle in conditions of poor
visibility
• Auxiliary driving lamps including spot lamps for distance illumination and fog
lamps to reduce the reflected glare from fog
• Reversing lamps to illuminate the road when the vehicle is moving backwards and
warn other drivers of the movement
• Brake lights to warn a following driver that the vehicle is slowing down
• Interior light and courtesy lights on doors
• Instrument panel lights to signal the correct operation of a unit or the
presence of a fault in a particular system
• Directional indicators and hazard warning lights
Forward illumination
• Headlamps
• Dipped beam (low beam, passing beam, meeting beam)- provide a light
distribution to give adequate forward and lateral illumination without
dazzling other road users with excessive glare
• Main beam (high beam, driving beam, full beam)- they are only suitable for
use when alone on the road, as the glare they produce will dazzle other
drivers
Circuit Layout
• To obtain maximum illumination the lamps are connected in parallel
• With the arrangement an open circuit in any branch causes failure only
in that one branch, the other lamps still function normally
• The vehicle lighting systems normally use an earth return circuit,
because this requires less cable length than an insulated return or two
wire system
• When the vehicle body is used as an earth, a good clean connection
must be provided at suitable earthing points on the main body
• This earthing lead is specifically essential if the lamp is fitted in a
plastics body panel
• Lighting circuit (simplified)
 Ignition
•system
An ignition system generates a spark or heats an electrode to a high
temperature to ignite a fuel-air mixture in Spark ignition engines
• Compression ignition Diesel engines ignite the fuel-air mixture by the
heat of compression and do not need a spark
• They usually have glow-plugs that preheat the combustion chamber to allow
starting in cold weather
• Other engines may use a flame, or a heated tube, for ignition