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 Definition of History
The word “History” is derived from Greek word “Istoria”
which means “Enquiry” or learning through investigation.
It is the story of the human experience
History is the continuous interaction b/n historian and his
facts, unending dialogue b/n the past & present.
 It is an organized and systematic study of the past.
The experts who study history are called historians.

What distinguishes History from other social

sciences?
 History studies the interaction of man and his natural
environment through the passage of time while other
disciplines study man and nature in their present state.
 Categories of Human Past
Historians divide the human past into two major
categories. These are
1) Pre-history: is the study of the past before the
evolution of complex social and political
organizations. It can also be defined as the study of
human past before the origin of writing or the
production of written records
2) History: on other hand, studies the period after the
beginning of writing. Historians have divided it in to
3 periods.
 Ancient history
 Medieval history &
 Modern History
 Uses of History
Helps us to understand people and societies
Helps us to understand change and how the society we
live in came to be
 Contributes to moral understanding
 Provides identity
Is essential for good citizenship
Is useful in the world of work
 Provides instructive examples
It enables us to be broadminded and to have an
international outlook
 Supports common cultural understanding and dialogue
 Sources of History
Sources are the key to the study and writing of
history.
They are the bases of those statements and
judgments.
They form the reliable bridge that connects the
historian to the past.
 They are the instruments that bring to life what
appear to have been dead.
Good sources make possible the writing of good
history.
Sources are imperfect and fragmentary
 Primary sources
These are records that come directly from the period under investigation.
They are nearer in both time and space to the event.
They are original or first hand in their proximity and immediacy to the event both in
time and space
These may include:
 documents (such as letters) written at the time;
 material remains such as ruins of buildings,
 monuments,
 tools,
 ornaments,
 pottery,
 coins,
 diaries,
 archives
 inscription
 Government and church records:- Censuses, court records, birth, death,
marriage and burial records are important sources of information.
oral sources/oral traditions may be either primary or secondary sources
Primary sources are obtained into different ways:
1) For ancient times, from archaeological excavations.
2) For more recent times, from archives, museums and libraries.
3) Sometimes we can find primary sources in private hands. Such as coins, pictures, letters etc
 Secondary Sources
These sources are not the direct product of the
period under study.
These are not first hand sources
They are removed from the event in both space and
time.
They are sometimes referred to as historical
reconstruction what the historian does is to
reconstruct the past on the basis of the available
sources (letter of emperor Tewodros to Queen
Victoria is primary, on the other hand books written
by using this letter is used as secondary sources)
 Source criticism
Historians should always make use of a critical way
of evaluation of sources.
before using any sources, a historian should ask the
following:
• Is the source authentic?
• Where did the source come from?
• When exactly was the source produced?
• What type of source is it?
• Who produced the source?
 HISTORIOGRAPHY
It means the history of historical studies.
Homer, Herodotus and Thucydides contribute lots.
Herodotus is generally regarded as the father of history.
the scientific study of the past took a long time for development.
It began to develop only in the nineteenth century. The German historian, Leopold
Von Ranke, made the most significant contribution to the development of modern
historiography.
Ranke was known as the father of modern history.
In the region of Ethiopia and the Horn, the writing of history passed through
various stages of evolution.
In the beginning, there were the Ethiopian chroniclers.
 Chroniclers have been writing the daily achievements of the Emperor.
The main function of chroniclers was to write whatever the principal dictated.
 It is the characteristic of Ethiopian chroniclers to exaggerate the good works of the
emperor and to ignore completely the baser aspects.
Their accounts also characterized by a strong religious bias. There is still Ethiopian
proverb, “God cannot be blamed and the Emperor cannot be accused”.
 European contribution for Ethiopian Historiography
Ethiopian studies as a discipline was founded in Europe in the 17 thC.
The man who started this great task was Job Ludolf (1624-1704), a
German, born in Frankfurt.
He wrote the history of Ethiopia in Latin. His main sources were literary
acquisitions which he was able to collect from different people,
particularly, from Abba Gregory, his Ethiopian teacher.
European travelers, missionaries, explorers, envoys and consuls produced
a numbers of books, played significant role in the development of
Ethiopian historiography.
In the early 20thC, a number of Ethiopian intellectuals wrote on various
aspects of their country’s past. Of these the most notables are:
 Afwerq Gebre Yesus: wrote the history of Menelik II
 Aleqa Taye, a well-educated Ethiopian who wrote about Ethnography of Ethiopia,
 Blattengeta Hiruy Welde Selassie
 Tekle Sadik Mekuria recorded Ethiopian history from the very ancient times to the present
day.
 Yilma Deressa published a book on the history of Ethiopia in the 16 thc.
 Problems in the study of Ethiopia History

 Imbalance of sources
 Lack of comprehensiveness &
 Lack of objectivity
 GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING CONTEXT
The term “Ethiopia and the Horn” refers to that part of
Northeast Africa which now forms the territories of the
modern states of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and
Somalia.
 It is a region of considerable geographical, linguistic,
and cultural diversity.
At the same time the region has witnessed considerable
interaction over a long period.
The region consists chiefly of mountains uplifted
through the formation of the Great Rift Valley. The Rift
Valley is a fissure in the Earth’s crust running down
from Syria to Mozambique and marking the separation
of the African and Arabian tectonic plates.
The major physiographic features of the region are a massive highland
complex of mountains and plateaus divided by the Great Rift Valley and
surrounded by lowlands, semi-desert, deserts and tropical forests along the
periphery.
The diversity of the terrain led to regional variations in climate, natural
vegetation, soil composition, and settlement patterns.
As with the physical features, people across the region are remarkably diverse:
 they speak a vast number of different languages,
 They profess to many distinct religions,
 They live in various types of dwellings, and
 They engage in a wide range of economic activities.

At the same time, however, peoples of the region were never isolated; they
interacted throughout history from various locations. Thus, as much as there
are many factors that make people of a certain area unique from the other,
there are also many areas in which peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn share
common past.
The history of Ethiopia and the Horn has been shaped by contacts with others
through
 commerce,
 migrations,
 wars,
 slavery,
 colonialism, and
 the waxing and waning of state systems.
 Geographical Features
The region is characterized by the following important
geographical features which have had a significant impact
on its historical evolution.
1) The Nile valley: has served through the ages as
important line of communication and gave rise to some
important civilizations, notably that of ancient Egypt.
2) The Red sea and gulf of Aden: which have linked,
since time immemorial, Northeast Africa to the eastern
Mediterranean, the Near and Middle East, India and the
Far East, &
3) The Indian Ocean: This likewise has linked East
Africa to the near and Middle East, India and the Far
East.
Map of Africa showing water Bodies
 Drainage Systems
Rivers and the drainage systems provide people with their livelihood
and lines of interconnection.
The region of Ethiopia and the Horn is the source of five major
drainage systems each of these has had a profound impact on the life
and history of the local peoples and the relationships among them.
These drainage systems are:
a) The Nile river system: this dominates practically the whole of the western part of
the region, from Uganda in the south to Egypt in the north.
b) The Awash valley: this is an entirely Ethiopian system and links the cool rich
highlands of central Ethiopia with the hot, dry lowlands of the Danakil depression.
c) The Gibe/ Omo-Gojab river system: this connects rich area of southern Ethiopia
to the semi-desert lowlands of northern Kenya.
d) The Genale/Juba-Shabale river system: this is a vast drainage area extending
from the highlands of Arsi, Bale and Sidamo to the very hot lowlands of the Somali
coast.
e) The Ethiopian Rift valley Lakes system: this is characterized by a string of lakes
stretching from Lake Zway in the north to Lake Turkana (formerly known as Rudolf)
on the Ethio-Kenyan border.
Drainage System of Ethiopia
 Environmental Zones
Another major geographical feature of Ethiopia and the Horn is
environmental zones.
This refers to the economic formation and settlement pattern of the
people
There are three major environmental zones running roughly from north
to south
1) Eastern zone: include much of the Sahel (lowland Eritrea), the Danakil depression,
Djibouti, the lower Awash valley, and the lower parts of Harar, Bale and Sidamo and
the whole territory of the republic of Somalia. It is sparsely populated &
predominantly pastoral economy has characterized the region since early times.
2) Highland massif: starts from northern Eritrea and continues all the way to
southern Ethiopia. The Rift valley divides the major, western, parts of this zone from
its eastern extension consisting of the Arsi, Bale and Harar plateau. The region is
characterized by a terrain combining high mountains and deep valleys as well as
extensive plateau. (Plow Agriculture, largest section of population and state
formation)
3) Hot lowland zones: stretches north to south along the western foothills of the
highlands. It was characterized in earlier times by thick forests, particularly on the
banks of the Nile and its tributaries. The peoples in this zone have practiced different
forms of economic activities in earning livelihood, ranging from hunting and
gathering, through pastoralism, to shifting cultivation.
 Human Evolution
Evolution is the process by which human as well as living
organisms descended from previous organisms with some
modification.
With regard to the origin of human beings, there are two
theories suggested. These are the creationist and
evolutionist theory.
Those who believe in the assumption that God creates
humans and the whole universe are
creationists.
The evolutionists believe that human beings and other
living things are the result of a gradual development that
took millions of years.
Human evolution is the theory which states humans
evolved from primates, or ape-like ancestors.
 Natural Selection

Natural selection can be defined as genetic change in a

population resulting from differential reproductive success
Two individuals strongly influenced by the scientific
evolution were Charles Robert Darwin (1809–1882)
and Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913), nineteenth-
century British naturalists.
Darwin first proposed his theory of evolution in 1859
known as the Origin of Species.
When he replied to the origins of human beings (The
Descent of Man, 1871), he suggested that the birthplace
of humankind was probably Africa.
 Cont..
At that time Darwin’s ideas provoked great controversy in
Europe.
But many Europeans found it hard to accept that their own
most ancient ancestor had originally come from Africa.
 Since the 1950s, however, scientific research in the dry
savannah, grasslands and woodlands of southern, eastern
and northern Africa have provided sufficient evidence to
confirm the truth of Darwin’s proposition: Africa is indeed
the “cradle of humankind.”
 It seems that Africa is the origin not only of the human
species itself, but also of many of the more important
technological innovations developed in the ancient
world of early human of pre-history.
Human evolution accounts only a fraction of history of
the globe that had been formed through gradual natural
process since about (circa/c.) 4. 5 billion years before
present (B. P.)
The earliest life came into being between 3 and 1 billion
years B. P.
 Blue green algae,
 small plants,
 fishes, birds and other small beings emerged at c. 800 million years B. P.
 Primates branched of placental mammal stream as of
200-170 million years B. P. and then some primates
developed into
 Pongidae (such as gorilla, chimpanzee, orangutan, gibbon etc)
While others evolved into Hominidae (human
ancestors).
Archeological evidences suggest that East African Rift Valley is the cradle of
Cont..

humanity.
Evidences related to both biological and cultural evolution have been discovered
in the Lower Omo and Middle Awash River valleys both by Ethiopian and
foreign scholars.
A fossil named Chororapithecus dated 10 million B. P. was unearthed in Anchar
(in West Hararghe) in 2007.
Ardipithicus ramidus kadabba (dated 5.8-5.2 million years BP) was
discovered in Middle Awash.
Ardipithicus ramidus (dated 4. 2 million B.P.) was discovered at Aramis in
Afar in 1994. Other Australopithecines were uncovered at Belohdelie (dated
back 3.6 million years B. P.) in Middle Awash.
A three years old child’s fossil named as Australopithecus afarensis, Selam,
dated to 3.3 million years B.P was also discovered at Dikika, Mille, Afar in 2000.
Another Australopithecus afarnesis (Lucy/Dinkinesh, dated c. 3.18 million
years B. P.) with 40% complete body parts, weight 30kg, height 1.07 meters with
a pelvis looks like bipedal female was discovered at Hadar in Afar in 1974 A. D.
Fossil named Australopithecus anamensis was discovered around Lake
Turkana.
An eco-fact named as Australopithecus garhi (means surprise in Afar
language) dated to 2.5 million years B.P was discovered at Bouri, Middle Awash,
between 1996 and 1999.
The development of the human brain was the main feature of the next
stage of human evolution, which produced the genus Homo, believed to
have emerged 2-2.5 million years B.P.
Different evidences of the genus homo have been recovered in different
parts of Ethiopia and the Horn.
 A partial skull of a fossil named as Homo habilis, which is derived from
Latin terms "Homo" (human being) and "Habilis" (skillful use of hands),
dated 1.9 million years B. P. has been found in the Lower Omo.
A fossil named Homo erectus (walking upright, dated 1. 6 million years
B. P.) was discovered at Melka Kunture, Konso, Gardula and Gadeb with
900-1100 cc brain size.
Homo erectus seems to have originated in Africa and then spread out to
the rest of the world.
Skeleton of Archaic Homo sapiens (knowledgeable human being,
dated 400, 000 years B.P.) named Bodo with brain size of 1300-1400cc
was discovered in Middle Awash.
Fossils of Homo sapiens sapiens (100, 000 years B.P.) were discovered
at Porc Epic near Dire Dawa, and Kibish around Lower Omo (in 1967).
In 2004, Kibish fossils were re-dated to 195, 000 B. P, the oldest date in
the world for modern Homo sapiens. Homo sapiens idaltu, found in
Middle Awash in 1997, lived about 160, 000 years B.P.
 Cultural evolution
Cultural evolution is related to technological changes that
brought socio-economic transformation on human life. It can be
conventionally grouped in to
 Stone Age,
 Bronze Age and
 Iron Age.

Stone tools had been the first technologies to be developed by

human beings.
By taking their features, ways and period of production, stone
tools can be grouped in to three
1) Mode I (Olduwan, which was named based on the first report made at Olduvai
Gorge, Tanzania),
 The Mode I stone tools are mainly characterized by crude and mono-facial styles,
and were produced by the direct percussion
2) Mode II (Acheulean, named after the first report at St. Acheul, France)
 Mode II stone tools were produced by indirect percussion, by using hand-ax or
hammer, and mainly characterized by bifacial, pointed and convex features.
3) Mode III (Sangoon)
 Mode III stone tools are characterized by flexible and fine form of production by the
use of obsidian.

Examples of the above types of stone tools have been discovered in

Ethiopia and the Horn.
 Cont…

During Cultural evolution

 Tools use become sophisticated
 Use fire
 Cave painting
 Advancement of agriculture
 Introduction of language
 There skill learned from teaching and communication
 Period of Stone tools Usage
The period of usage of stone tools is divided into
sub-periods.
1) The Paleolithic (Old Stone Age, from 3.4 million to 11, 000
years B. P.) was the period when human being sheltered in
caves, developed language, and used stone, bone, wood, furs,
and skin materials to prepare food and clothing. There was sex-
age labor division with able-bodied males as hunters of fauna,
and children and females as gatherers of flora.
2) The Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age /11, 000-10,000 B. P.) was
transition between Paleolithic and Neolithic (New Stone Age
/10, 000-6, 000 B.P).
3) The Neolithic (New Stone Age /10, 000-6, 000 B.P).
 Neolithic Revolution
During the Neolithic period human beings transformed from
mobile to sedentary way of life.
This was a radical shift involving changes from hunting and
gathering to the domestication of plants and animals.
Climatic change and increased hunter-gatherers’ population
resulted in the declining number of animals and availability
of plants.
 As food gatherers were already aware of growing cycle of
most grass types, they began to grow those, which were most
common and yielded seeds that are more edible.
The big animals, which depended on dense bushes for
sustenance, were reduced by hunting while smaller animals
that were easy to domesticate were easily domesticated and
animals that people were able to domesticate easily were
smaller ones.
 Cont…

The process of domestication took place independently

in the various parts of the world.
In Ethiopia and the Horn chiefly in the more elevated
and wetter-parts, people cultivated plants including
 Teff (Eragrotis teff),
 dagussa (Eleusine coracana),
 nug (Guzotia abyssinica),
 enset (Ensete ventricosum) etc.
The domestication of enset plant (Ensete edule)
reduced shifting cultivation (continuous clearing of
new plots), slowing down soil exhaustion.
 Cont…

The discovery of polished axes, ceramics, grinding stones, beads,

stone figures and animal remains in sites like Emba-Fakeda
around Adigrat in Tigray as well as Aqordat and Barentu in
Eritrea evinces the existence of Neolithic material culture.
The Gobodara rock shelter near Aksum has provided us
agricultural stone tools. Remains associated with domesticated
cattle, chickpeas and vegetables have been excavated from
Lalibela Cave on the southeastern shore of Lake Tana.
Stone tools used for cutting grass and grass like plants as well as
rock paintings of domesticated animals have been found at Laga
Oda rock shelter near Charchar.
Evidence for domesticated cattle also comes from around Lake
Basaqa near Matahara.
Playa Napata and Kado in the Sudan, Cyrenaica in Libya and
Futajalon in West Africa were among known places of
domestication of animals like Nidamawa and Zebu (Bos indicus)
cattle that in due course expanded to Ethiopia and the Horn.
 Domestication of plants and animals
Domestication refers to the process through which humans
modify plants and animals to enhance characteristics that
human’s desire.
For millions of years, human beings were hunters and
gatherers because they were dependent up on the natural
environment.
They simply hunted wild animals, gathered fruits, and
other plant products using simple tools out of stone, bone
and copper.
The long period of gathering and hunting helped people to
know more about plants and animals. Man thus began to
domesticate them instead of moving in search of wild food
sources.
 Why humans began domestication of plants and animals?
Why humans started the process of domestication of animals
and plants is still controversial. No single theory seems to
apply to all cases of food production in the world. However,
Archaeologists have numbers of theories to explain why
humans began farming.
 population pressure or changes in environment may have forced humans to
find new economic strategies which led to farming
 population of humans may have lived in a region where it was relatively easy
to domesticate wild plants and animals
 the rise of farming may have been a function of social change, as individuals
began to use agriculture as a means to acquire wealth in the form of food
surplus.
In generally speaking, population growth, climate change
and the desire for surplus production are possible factor for
the beginning of domestication.
 Outcomes of domestication of plants and animals
it seems to have had important consequences for
human life. These include:
 Substantial increase in population
 Increased sedentary life depending on agriculture
 Increased permanent village with more elaborated houses and
furnishings
 Differentiations in the acquisition of wealth
 Increased long distance trade that led to the emergence of
civilization
 HOMINID SPECIES IN ETHIOPIA
Ethiopia is known as a cradle of human origin i.e the
discovery of lucy, selam, ardi etc
Before the discussion, it is important to say that:
 The first serious attempt to conduct archaeological excavation in Ethiopia was
made by the German expedition of 1906, which surveyed northern Ethiopia
and stayed at Aksum for several weeks.
 The Ethiopian institute of Archeology was established in 1952 and it began to
coordinate archaeological excavations conducted in the country since then.
There are three stages through which the Homo species
passed before the emergence of modern humans. These are:
Homo habilis (handy man)– i.e. able to make simple tools
Homo erectus- i.e. able to erect upright and walk
Homo Sapiens- i.e. Knowledge is the distinctive feature of
modern human.
 Languages of Ethiopia
Classification of Ethiopian Languages
the region of Ethiopia and the Horn itself is marked by
ethnic and linguistic diversity.
 Estimates of the number of languages in the region are
as high as 100.
Yet, as in the continent as a whole, there is
considerable interrelationship among these seemingly
diverse languages.
Of the four super-families of African languages (Afro-
Asiatic, Nilo-Saharan, Niger-Congo and kohi-san)_the
Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan, particularly the former,
that are most pertinent to our understanding of the
languages in the region.
 Afro-Asiatic
 This family covers the largest sector of the region’s population. It can be divided into the following three
linguistic groups:
i. Cushitic: this covers the great majority of the region’s population and also spills over into such
neighboring regions as the Sudan and even as south as Tanzania. The Cushitic languages have the
following sub-divisions:
 Northern Cushitic: this was more widely spread in ancient times between the red sea and the Nile
valley. Today, it is mainly represented by the Beja languages which are spoken in the northwestern corner
of Eritrea and the adjoining of districts of Sudan.
 Central Cushitic: this is believed to have been the ancient language family covering the highland
districts of much of Eritrea, Tigray, Gondar, Gojjam, wallo, and northern Shawa. Currently, it is
represented by the Belen/Bogos in Eritrea and the Agaw, spoken to day on both sides of the Takkeze River
and in Qwara, Matakal, and Agawmeder.
 Lowland Cushitic: spoken originally in the vast eastern lowlands of the region, this language family has
become one of the largest in the region since the phenomenal expansion of the Oromo in the 16thC. The
main languages in this group are: Saho, and Afar, Oromigna and Somali.
 East highland Cushitic: consisting mainly of the following modern languages: Hadiya, Kambata,
Sidama Gedeo, Alaba, Burji, and lipido.
ii. Semitic: this is the second major family of the region and is sub-divided into the following language
groups:
 North-Ethio-Semitic: consisting of Ge’ez, an ancient language of northern Ethiopia now mainly for
religious purposes; Tegre, in the Eritrean lowlands; and Tigrigna, spoken in the southern Eritrea and in
Tigray.
 South-Ethio-Semitic: consisting principally of Amharic, Argobba, Gafat (now extinct), Guragigna and
Harari.
iii. Omotic: as the name indicates, this refers to a number of languages spoken mainly in the Omo valley.
There are as many as 26 different Omotic languages spoken in Ethiopia to day. The main notables are:
Walayta, Gamu, Gofa, Kafa, Kullo, Konta, Gimira, Ari, Sheko, and maji.
 Nilo-Saharan
Languages belonging to this super-family are found
in the western borderlands of the region.
Of the 28 languages believed to belong this super-
family, the most important ones are: Anuak, Gumuz,
Kunama, Barta, Nuer, Majangir, & Mien.
 Language spoken both in Ethiopia and
the Horn of Africa
Afarigna and Somaligna in Ethiopia and Djibouti
Afarigna, Kunama, Saho and Tigrigna in Ethiopia
and Eritrea
Somaligna in Ethiopia, Djibouti and Somalia.
 Ethiopian languages which are in danger of
extinction
Cushitic Semitic Omotic Nilo Saharan
Amuru Argoba Ganza Kwegu

Bayso Geez Hozo Gobato

Birale Zay Kachama Northern Mao

(Kere)

Girara Karo Opuuo

Kunfal Nayi Shabo

Seze
 Settlement patterns
A settlement pattern, the distribution of peoples
across the landscape, is the results of long historical
processes in northeast Africa.
In some areas, settlement was dense and in other
areas sparse. Some people inhabited extensive
highlands and others the lowlands.
Based on historical linguistic and history of inter-
peoples relations, studies indicate that
environmental, socio-economic, and political
processes significantly shaped and reshaped the
spatial distribution of peoples in the region.
 Cont..
Since early times, the Cushitic and Semitic peoples had
inhabited the area between the Red Sea in the east and
Blue Nile in the west from where they dispersed to
different directions.
In due course, the Cushites have evolved to be the largest
linguistic group in Ethiopia and the Horn and have also
spread over wide areas from Sudan to Tanzania.
Similarly, the Semitic peoples spread over large area and
eventually settled the northern, north central,
northeastern, south central and eastern parts of Ethiopia
and the Horn.
The Semites are the second majority people next to the
Cushites.
 Cont..
Except the Shinasha, who live in Benishangul-
Gumuz and the South Mao in Wallagga, the majority
of Omotic peoples have inhabited southwestern
Ethiopia along the Omo River basin. Yet, in the
earlier times, they had extended much further to the
north.
In the west, the Nilotes are largely settled along the
Ethiopia-Sudanese border although some of the
Chari-Nile family inhabited as far as southern Omo.
The latter are identified as the Karamojo cluster
living around Turkana Lake along Ethio-Kenyan
border.
 Economic Formations

The domestication of plants and animals gave

humanity two interdependent modes of life:
agriculture and pastoralism.
Topographic features and climatic conditions largely
influenced economic activities in Ethiopia and the
Horn.
 Pastoralism
A predominantly pastoral economy has
characterized the eastern lowland region since early
periods. Pastoral economy namely the production of
camel, goat, and cattle has been the most common
economic practice among the Afar, Saho and Somali
as well as Karayu and Borana Oromo.
While the Afar and Karrayu have depended on the
Awash River, the Somali have owed a great deal to
Wabi Shebelle and Genale (Jubba) Rivers.
 Cont..
In the sparsely populated western lowland region, the
dominant economic formations were pastoralism,
shifting agriculture, fishing, apiculture and hunting.
For instance, sorghum, millet, cotton and other crops
have been largely cultivated in the lowlands along
Ethio-Sudanese border since antiquity.
The Nilotes along the Blue Nile and Baro-Akobo
Rivers have been shifting cultivators where sorghum
has been a staple food.
 Among majority Nilotic communities, cattle have
high economic and social values. Berta and other
Nilotes had trade and other social contacts with
northern Sudan.
 Religion and Religious Processes

Religion is as old as civilization.

The region of Ethiopia and the horn has been a
platform of different competing religious beliefs and
practices from time immemorial
 Religions in Ethiopia and the Horn
Major religions
Indigenous Religion , Christianity and Islam
 Indigenous Religion
Traditional religion/indigenous includes the variety
of beliefs and practices which are native to the local
communities since ancient time
With the development of agriculture, people came to
attribute some natural phenomena like
reproduction, growth of animals and plants, change
of climate and seasons to super natural forces.
 As a result, they began to worship various natural
objects such as the sky, the moon, the sun, rivers,
mountains, lakes, animals, trees and the like.
 Cont…
In Ethiopia before the introduction of Christianity, people
were worshiped different gods including indigenous and
foreign deities (Greek and South Arabian gods).
Examples, before his conversion to Christianity, king
Ezana’s gods were
 Mahrem (god of war) and
 Meder (god of Earth).
Greek gods such as Ares (god of war), Poseidon (god of
the Sea), Hercules, Hermes, Zeus etc were practiced
in the pre-Christian Aksumite Empire.
The South Arabian gods like Astar (god of heaven),
Almouqah etc were introduced.
 Traditional beliefs among the Oromo

traditional beliefs have been practiced among the

Oromo, for example, that supernatural power is called
Waqa.
 In such societies, there are people who act as
intermediaries or mediators between gods and people.
The Oromo called these mediators (priests and
priestesses) qallu (for men) and qallitti (for women).
People believe that the Qallu and the Qallitti interpret
the mysteries of nature and care for the spiritual well-
being of the community.
 Traditional beliefs among the SNNP

Deities and spirits were/are in some cases still

practiced among the SNNP.
The Hadya had traditional god an equivalent to the
Oromo waqa known as Wa.
The Kambatta have religious officials known as the
Magnancho(“God’s people”).
The Gurage has three traditional deities-Waq(the
supreme deity), the Bozha(the god thunder), and
Damwamwit (a goddess with a supernatural
healing powers).
 Syncretism

An interesting feature of traditional religion is the way in

which its practitioners fused it with Christian and Muslim
beliefs and practice over time.
 This phenomenon of the creating mixing of religions is
known as syncretism.
A typical example is the way pre-Christian ceremony
celebrating the Christian feast, notable example for the
finding of the True Cross (mesqal).
An element of syncretism in fasting practices among the
Kambatta and Hadiya is another example. Thus, the Muslims
fast of Ramadan has been superimposed over the pre-
Muslim Hadiya practice known as Fandano.
 Christianity
Christianity was first introduced in Aksum in the first half of the 4 th
century A.D by a young Christian from the eastern Mediterranean
named as Frementos (Fremantus to European).
Documentary and archaeological evidences show that the first
Aksumite king who embraced Christianity around 340 A.D. was King
Ezana.
But this conversion was largely confined to the king and his
entourage and some members of the nobility. Aksum is therefore
almost the world's oldest official Christian state
With this conversion to Christianity, initially as an official state
religion and only later filtering down to the common population,
came an unprecedented amount of Egyptian influence.
Frumentius was a missionary of the Coptic Church, headquartered in
Alexandria, and the Patriarch there appointed him as the first
'Bishop of the Ethiopians'. This practice of appointing a
foreigner, from then on always an Egyptian Copt, as Archbishop of
the Ethiopian church by the Patriarch in Alexandria continued down
through the centuries, ending only in 1959.
 Cont..
Christianity was expanding in the Mediterranean world by which
Aksum had political relations at this time.
Visitors, merchants and Christian diplomats used to come to
Aksum from the Mediterranean World. Hence, Fremenatos and
his brother–Aedesius were visitors of the region.
The two brothers were captured and brought to the royal court of
Ella Amida. They were their employed in the royal court of Aksum
and thus used that position to convert Ezana and members of the
royal family into Christianity.
Later on, the two went to Alexandria and the Egyptian patriarch
Abune Atnatewos consecrated Fremenatos as the first bishop of
Ethiopia and renamed as Abune Selama or Kessate
Birhan/father of peace.
The conversion of Aksum into Christianity was the logical outcome
of its close links (particularly commercial) with the Greco-Roman
world.
 Nine Saints
The Nine Saints were a group of missionaries who were important
in the initial growth of Christianity in what is now Ethiopia during
the late 5th century.
Ethiopian sources describe colorfully an event which took place
towards the end of the 5th C, namely the advent of the nine Saints
which is regarded as the “second Evangelization” of the country.
The nine Saints are well known because of their contribution to
religious life in Ethiopia.
They are thought to have been monks and priests expelled from the
East Roman Empire after the council of Chalcedon in 451 (to settle a
conflict over the understanding of the true nature of Christ).
This council rejected the Monophysite doctrine which affirmed the
single nature of Christ, and alienated many eastern Christians.
 They were warmly received by Ella Amda, the grandfather of Caleb,
and were active in establishing churches and monasteries,
translating the Bible and organizing Christian communities.
 Name of Nine Saints

1) Abba Aftse,
2) Abba Alef, 
3) Abba Aragawi, 
4) Abba Garima (Isaac, or Yeshaq),
5) Abba Guba,
6) Abba Liqanos, 
7) Abba Pantelewon,
8) Abba Sehma, and 
9) Abba Yem’ata.
 The contribution of Nine Saints
The Nine Saints came to escape the
persecution against Christianity in their
home country.
They brought with them priests, church articles and
religious books.
In their stay in Aksum, they translated many
religious books including the Bible into Ge’ez,
They built many churches and monasteries.
 They also helped Christianity expanding into
different parts of the Aksumite kingdom.
 Cont…
The expansion of Christianity continued in Zagwe period
(1150-1270) and chiefly gained fresh momentum during
the early Medieval Period (1270-1527), when many
churches and monasteries were constructed.
These include
 Rock-hewn churches of Lalibela,
 Debra-Bizan of Hamasen in Eritrea;
 Debra-Hayiq in Wollo,
 Debre-Dima and Debre-Werq in Gojjam;
 Debra-Libanos in Shewa,
 irbir Mariam in Gamo and
 Debre-Asabot on the way to Harar.

These churches and monasteries are not merely religious

centers, but served through the ages as repositories of
ancient manuscripts and precious objects of art.
 The influence of Missionaries
From mid-sixteenth to the early seventeenth centuries, the Jesuit
missionaries tried to convert Monophysite EOC to Dyophysite
Catholic.
Yet, this led to bloody conflicts that in turn led to expulsion of the
Jesuits.
However, the Jesuits intervention triggered religious controversies
within the EOC
As of 1804, missionaries’ religious expansion also resulted in the
conclusion of treaties between European diplomats and Ethiopian
authorities.
The Catholic Giuseppe Sapeto (Lazarist mission founder), Giustino
De Jacobis (Capuchin order founder), Cardinal Massaja, Antoine
and Arnauld d'Abbadie were active.
Anglican Church Missionary Society (ACMS), Church Missionary
Society of London (CMSL) and Wesleyan Methodist Society led
Protestant missionaries under such leaders as Samuel Gobat, C.W.
Isenberg and J. L. Krapf.
 Cont…

Systematic approach of trained Protestants enabled

them to win confidence of local people.
They translated spiritual books into vernaculars.
They adopted old names for Supreme Being like
Waqayyo, Tosa etc and used them in new versions as
equivalent to God.
Village schools were established as centers of preaching
the faith. These schools were open to all children of
chiefs and farmers.
They also provided medical facilities. All these attracted
a large number of followers. Eventually, continuous and
systematic indoctrinations seem to have resulted in
grafting of new teaching on indigenous religion.
 Consequences of the introduction of Christianity to Ethiopia
It brought Aksum into closer contact with the
Roman world in the international politics of the Red
Sea and the Indian Ocean
It tied the fate of Christian Ethiopia with that of
Egypt.
It paved ways for the introduction of many new
cultural elements to the Ethiopian region.
The introduction of Christianity brought on
interdependence between the church and the state.
 Islam
Geographically, Ethiopia is located near to Arabia, the birthplace
of Islam.
Prophet Mohammad, the founder of Islam enjoyed a friendly
relationship with Ethiopians.
When Prophet Mohammed had preached Islam in Mecca since
610 AD, he faced opposition from the Quraysh rulers. Under this
circumstance, the Prophet sent some of his early followers to
Aksum including his daughter Rukiya and her husband Uthman
as well as the Prophet's future wives Umm Habiba and Umm
Salma to Aksum
When he encountered persecution at the hands of the Quraysih,
who were responsible for the Ka’aba, Mohammad advised his
followers to go to Ethiopia as there was “…a king under whom
none are persecuted.”
The first group who arrived at Ethiopia in around 615 A.D
consisted of twelve men and five women. Among them was
Rockea, the Prophet’s daughter and her husband Ousman.
 Cont..
The immigrants arrived safely in Aksum where they were
hospitably received by the king and the people.
After three months had elapsed, they returned to Mecca. The
favorable conditions under which the first immigrants lived in
Aksum attracted more followers of Mohammed to Ethiopia. The
second immigration was continued.
Men sometimes accompanied by their wives and children crossed
the Red Sea and arrived at Aksum.
The leader of the second group was Ja’afar B. Abu Talib, cousin of
Mohammad.
The total number of emigrants was 107
The Aksumite king allowed them to exercise their religion freely.
The Qurayish then sent two envoys to Aksum to persuade the king
of Aksum to expel the emigrants, but the Aksumite king refused to
do so.
The envoys returned to their country and in retaliation, the
Qurayish intensified the persecution of the Muslims and applied
 Gateways of Islam
The Dahlak island on the Red Sea and
The port of Zeila on the Gulf of Aden served as the
gateways for the introduction of Islam into Ethiopia
 It was from these coastal centers that Islam gradually spread
among the predominantly pastoral communities of the interior
largely through the activities of preachers and traders. Later, in the
10th century Muslims formed their own state (Sultanate).
 Islam introduced to Central and eastern Ethiopia, particularly
Harar, eastern Shoa and Wallo. Since Christianity did not yet
reach central, eastern and southern Ethiopia, Islam came to
dominate those areas and the local people were converted to
Islam.
 Muslim States (Sultanates)

1) Shoa (the first Muslim state emerged in the beginning of the

11th century and ruled by the Makhzumite Dynasty)
2) Ifat, emerged in the 13th century and founded by a man called
Umar Walasma that annexed the Sultanate of Shoa.

3) Dawaro(to the west of Harar plateau),

4) Sharka in Arsi,
5) Bali(south of Dawaro)
6) Hadya, emerged b/n
the 11th & 14th c.
7) Fatagar,
8) Arbabani and
9) Darawere
 Islamization in Ethiopia
Unlike other countries of Africa, the process of Islamization
was not followed by Arabization for the following reasons:
 The Ethiopian Muslims retained with their culture and language (the
converts remained with their national and ethnical identity.)
 The Arabs did not carry out any conquest in Ethiopia (Jihad)

 there was no large scale Arab migration to Ethiopia

There has been peaceful co-existence between the Christian

and Muslims in Ethiopia.
As in case of Christianity, the establishment and growth of
Islam contributed to the development and enrichment of the
culture of the region.
 Finally, like churches and monasteries, mosques have been
centers of Islamic learning and housed works, Islamic art
and literature
 STATES AND STATE FORMATION IN ETHIOPIA AND THE
HORN
What is State?
 The state is the most universal and most powerful of
all social institutions. The state is a natural institution.
Aristotle said man is a social animal and by nature he
is a political being. To him, to live in the state and to
be a man were identical.
The modern term “state” is derived from the word
“status”.
It was Niccolo Machiavelli ( 1469 – 1527) who first
used the term “state” in his writings. His important
work is titled as “Prince”.
 Cont..
The state is the highest form of human association. It is
necessary because it comes into existence out of the basic
needs of life. It continues to remain for the sake of good life.
To Woodrow Wilson, “State is a people organized
for law within a definite territory.”
Aristotle defined the state as a “union of families
and villages having for its end a perfect and self – sufficing
life by which it meant a happy and honorable life”.
 To Holland, the state is “a numerous assemblage of
human beings generally occupying a certain territory
amongst whom the will of the majority or class is made to
rival against any of their number who oppose it.”
 Cont..
Burgess defines the state as “a particular portion of
mankind viewed as an organized unit.”
According to Sidgwick. “State is a combination or
association of persons in the form of government and
governed and united together into a politically organized
people of a definite territory.”
According to Garner, “State is a community of
people occupying a definite form of territory free of external
control and possessing an organized government to which
people show habitual obedience.”
Prof. Laski defines state as “a territorial society
divided into government and subjects whose relationships
are determined by the exercise of supreme coercive power.”
 Elements of state
Elements :
From the above definitions, it is clear that the following are the
elements of the state :-
Physical bases of the State
1. Population
2. Territory
Political bases of the State
1. Government
2. Sovereignty
1. Population :
It is the people who make the state. Population is essential for the
state. Greek thinkers were of the view that the population should
neither be too big nor too small. According
to Plato the ideal number would be 5040.
 Cont..
 According to Aristotle, the number should be neither too
large nor too small. It should be large enough to be self –sufficing
and small enough to be well governed.
Rousseau determined 10,000 to be an ideal number for a state.
Greek thinkers like Plato and Aristotle thinking on the
number was based on small city – states like Athens and Sparta.
Modern states vary in population. Eg. China, India- each has over
1billon population .
2.Territory :
There can be no state without a fixed territory. People need
territory to live and organize themselves socially and politically. It
may be remembered that the territory of the state includes land,
water and air – space.
 Cont..
The modern states differ in their sizes. Territory is necessary
for citizenship. As in the case of population, no definite size
with regard to extent of area of the state can be fixed. There
are small and big states.

In the words of Prof. Elliott “territorial sovereignty or

the Superiority of state overall within its boundaries and
complete freedom from external control has been a
fundamental principle of the modern state life”.
3.Government :
 Government is the third element of the state. There can be
no state without government. Government is the working
agency of the state. It is the political organization of the state.
 Cont..
Prof. Appadorai defined government as the agency through
which the will of the State is formulated, expressed and realized.
According to C.F. Strong, in order to make and enforce laws the
state must have supreme authority. This is called the government.
4.Sovereignty :
The fourth essential element of the state is sovereignty
The word ‘sovereignty” means supreme and final legal authority above
and beyond which no legal power exists.

The concept of “sovereignty” was developed in conjunction with the

rise of the modern state.
The term Sovereignty is derived from the Latin word superanus which
means supreme.
the father of modern theory of sovereignty was Jean Bodin (1530 –
1597) a French political thinker.
 Cont..

Sovereignty has two aspects :

1) Internal sovereignty
2) External sovereignty
Internal sovereignty means that the State is supreme
over all its citizens, and associations.
External sovereignty means that the state is
independent and free from foreign or outside
control.
 Theories on the origin of state

 The Divine Origin Theory;

 The Social Contract Theory;
The Force Theory; and
 The Natural Theory.
 
 The theory of Divine origin
This is the oldest theory concerning the primary origin
of the state.
state is established and governed by God himself or by
some supernatural power.
God may rule the state directly or indirectly through
some ruler who is regarded as the agent .
Such a state is known as a theocratic or God-ruled
state.
 Cont..

The salient/prominent features of the doctrine of the

Divine Right of Kings are:
Ø Monarchy is divinely ordained;
Ø Hereditary right ;
Ø Kings are accountable to God alone; and
Ø Resistance at a lawful king is sin.
 Social Contract Theory
This theory holds that the state is the result of a
deliberate and voluntary agreement on the part of
primitive men emerging from a state of nature.
 It assumes that there was a period in human history
when there was no state at all and no political order.
Some writers regard “state of nature‟ the only law that
governed human relations was the law of nature.
The state of nature was either too peaceful to last long
or too inconvenient and unbearable for man to put up
with it.
 Cont..
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) is the best known of
the contract theorist.
Hobbes argues that the state should be conceived of as a
contract between a group of people to guarantee their
mutual security and prosperity.
Hobbes argued that the natural condition of humanity-
the state of nature -was a thoroughly unpleasant one.
People live in the state of anarchy, which characterized
by "solitary, poor, nasty brutish and short" life.
The state emerged to terminate anarchism, which
threatens the life of all individuals in the state of nature.
 Cont..

In order to control the trend of anarchism the state, which

emerged via mutual contract of individual at the one hand
and the supposed ruler at the other, should posses an
absolute power that is no challenged by individuals.
 Force Theory

According to this theory the state is the result of

superior physical force
 it originates in the subjugation of the weaker by the
stronger.
It is natural to suppose that in primitive times the man
of exceptional physical strength was able to craw his
fellowman and to exercise some kind of authority over
them.
‟ The same is probably true also of superior tribes and
clans in their relationships to other tribes and clans.”
 Cont..

On the basis of this supposition, advocates of

the force theory contend that all states have
come into being through physical coercion or
compulsion.
Force is an essential element of the state both (or
internal unity and for security against external attack.
Without the element of force, the state would become a
prey of disruptive factors and would soon cease to be.
 Natural Theory
Here the argument is that state is an eventual extension
of the family.
The first group of collective human life is the family or
the household, the last is the state.
The earliest advocate of this theory is Aristotle in
whose view a society of many families is called a
village, and a village is most naturally composed of the
descendants of one family, And when many villages so
entirely join themselves together as in every respect to
form one society, that society is state.
 Class and state formation
A combination of factors may have fostered the
formation of states and classes. These are:
 The desire to control single most important resources- like water
and other resources in general
 population growth,
 agriculture or food production
 inter-regional interaction
 Trade etc are of some of the possible factors that contributed lots
to the formation of class and state.
 Pre-Axumite State
At the time when human beings lived as gatherers and hunters state
did not exist. Formerly, pre-class societies were organized into Clans
and Tribes.
The development of Agriculture and trade led to the emergence of
classes and states.
1) The State of Punt
Evidences indicated that the earliest name that belongs to the pre-
Aksumite period is the state of punt.
Ancient Egyptian sources indicate that there was commercial
relationship between Egypt and the land of Punt. 
There is no clearly known explanation among scholars on the exact
location of the state of punt mainly due to the lack of evidences.
Some historians believe that punt was located in what is now
northern or northeastern Somalia.
Others argue that it was located in Northern Ethiopia.
Inspite of these controversies, punt was the earliest pre-Aksumite
state in the Horn of Africa.
 Yeha

Avail better evidences about Yeha

It is situated east of Aksum
It was emerged in about 1000 B.C.
 Cont..

Hawlti-Melazo
Adulis
METARA, KESKESE and COLOE
Dmt/Damot
 Aksumite State
there is no clear vision on the meaning and origin of the word
Aksum.
There are different views in this regard.
Conti Rossini derives the word from Semitic root, Aksum which
signifies a green and dense garden, a full of grass (the area
was dense of forest)
Others view it as partially Agaw in origin “Ak” or “AKU” means
water, whereas the suffix “sum” is Semitic and means chief (chief’s
water).
The traditional sources, however, differs radically from this view. It
tries to derive the word from the legendary Emperor, Aksumawi
Some Ethiopian scholars still attempted to show that the word as
derived from Ge’ez verb-አከሰመ meaning to dedicate.
According to some Ge’ez texts, Aksum means the name of a place
of diamond.
 Cont..

In spite of the controversies on the meaning and origin of

the name Aksum, Aksum and Aksumite are mentioned in
epigraphic monuments and literature in different
languages: Greek, Sabaean, Ge’ez and Latin that mention
the name at least from the first century of the Christian era.
Aksum seems to have had locational advantages over other
city-states.
It located in a more fertile plain than others.
 Its location enabled Aksum to control the trade routes to
the interior from where ivory, incense, and gold were
coming.
 Aksumite Era

According to scholars, the Aksumite Era can be divided into

three broad periods (stages) of history.
1) The Early Aksumite phase: - This phase describes Aksum from its
formation to the introduction of Christianity. At this time Aksum made
initial expansions of territories. There was the tradition of using
carved Stelae to mark royal and elite cemeteries.
2) The Middle Aksumite phase (from about 400 A.D. to 700
AD):- This phase corresponds to the period of major expansion of the
kingdom. Coinage was widely used. Churches were widely scattered
over the territory of the kingdom.
3) The Late Aksumite phase (C. 700-900 A.D). This phase
correspond to the decline of the kingdom. Coinage was probably no
more in use. Some important towns, such as Matara and Adulis were
apparently abandoned. Aksum was significantly reduced in size.
 Growth and Expansion of Axum

4th c -7th c was a period of growth and territorial

expansion.
Aksum emerged as one of the great powers of the
world,
It minted its own coins and traded extensively using
Adulis as its Sea port.
 Economic activity
The prosperity and power of Aksum reached its zenith during
the time of Ezana
1) Agriculture
 The Aksumite state was based on thriving plow agriculture in its highland
provinces. Plow agriculture constituted the base of Aksumite economy. The
mastery of the technology of irrigation, along lines practiced south Arabia,
contributed to the growth of agricultural production.
2) Trade
 Trade was another important economic activity of the Aksumite Empire and the
state obtained considerable income from both internal and international trade.
 Indeed, trade seems to have been one of the major factors in the initial
formation of states in the northern Ethiopia.
 The earliest states in the region seem to have been also major centers of trade.
 At first, Aksum itself was probably only a watering station for the long distance
trade routes starting from Adulis and other trading posts on the Red sea coast
 The Reign of Ezana (4th century A.D)

What were the major historical achievements of King Ezana?

Aksum reached at the height of its civilization during the
reign of Ezana, son of Ella Amida in the 4th century A.D.
This period was marked by:
Aksum’s territorial expansion
Flourishing trade
Advancement in architecture and literature
The establishment of Christianity as an official religion of
the state
Ezana established law and order and he was also in a
strong position to crush a rebellion and to keep the trade
routes safe throughout his kingdom.
 Cont..
The power of Aksum at this time was left over its territories
and this was witnessed by a number of victories achieved by
Ezana. To this effect, Ezana erect a number of inscriptions
commemorating his victories over large areas of land.
 Tri-lingual inscriptions written in Sabean, Greek and Ge’ez erected after his
successful expedition against the Beja as a punishment for they had killed a
merchant.
 The second and the third inscriptions of Ezana are in Ge’ez and they deal
with expeditions of punishing people mainly along the western and northern
regions of Aksum while they refused to pay tribute and became hindrance to
a caravan merchant.
 His fourth inscription was in Ge’ez. It records the rules and regulations and
the protection he gave to his people.
 Ezana erected still another Ge’ez inscription for his victory over the powerful
state of Meroe i.e. a Nubian kingdom in the west around 350 A.D.
Society and social structure/hierarchical

King and royal family

Nobility and descendants of chiefs

administrators, military leaders

priests and other religious officials

Merchants, a class of artisans,

skilled workers

Slaves
 Axum and the outside world

Relation with
1) South Arabia
2) Greco-roman world
3) Egypt
4) India and
5) Mediterranean world
 Legacies of Axumite Civilization
Some of the legacies that Aksum left to Ethiopia today are the following: 
As a home of ancient kingdom in Africa and one of world heritage sites in the
country. Aksum is one of magnificent tourist destinations in Ethiopia. Carved
out of single piece of granite, the world’s most famous and mysterious obelisks
of Aksum witnessed the glorious of ancient civilization.
Another significant attraction is the famous cathedral of Aksum Tsion, in which
the Ark of the Covenant is kept. The cathedral still possesses impressive and
innumerable ancient relics in its museum.
The archaeological museum of Aksum is enriched with valuable archaeological
remains discovered in Aksum and in the surroundings.
The famous stone tablets of Ezana inscribed in the Greek, Ge’ez , and Sabean
languages witness the glory of Aksum during that time.
Complex ruined palace and swimming pool of the legendary Queen of Sheba.
Unique stone thrones, where Ethiopian kings used to be crowned in front of
Tsion Church.
Remarkable tombs of kings: Bazen, Caleb and Gebre Meskel; and many
historical monuments and antiquities are few of other attractions.
Some four kilometers to the west of Aksum is Gobadura, where the Aksumite
stelae were carved from the extremely huge stone quarries, parts of unfinished
stelae are still found here.
 Decline of Axum (factors)
Aksum began to decline in the early decades of the seventh century because of
the following factors:
The Failure of Resources
 The long period of occupation of the city of Aksum evidently had a profound effect on the
surrounding countryside, from which it drew the materials of subsistence. (Charcoal for cooking,
and heating and used for furniture and other equipment as well as house-building )
 degradation and erosion (exposed the topsoil after clearing trees for
different reason)
 Population pressure (growth)
cattle plague and locusts reduced animal and agricultural production
An erratic rainfall and depletion of soils and forests seems to have affected
the prosperity of the area.
Rise/uprising of Bejja tribe in Eritrea (established there own kingdom)
Emperor Caleb’s south Arabian campaigns must have been costly in men
and resources and frustrating because of the lack of lasting political success.
Invasion of Yodit Gudit (pagan queen)
Persian conquest of south Arabia put an end to Aksumite involvement there
The rise of Islam
Termination of Axum’s influence over the outlet to the sea
 Zagwe Dynasty
The transfer of political power from the Aksumite
rulers to the Zagwe Dynasty was not immediate.
Rather it was a gradual process.
 little is known about the period between the middle
of the 8th and 12th c due to lack of evidence.
Because of the shortage of information, there is a
problem about the exact date of the beginning of the
Zagwe Dynasty and the number of kings who ruled the
country during this period.
 Conti Rossini: it came to power in1150 A.D
 Spencer Trimingham : 1137 A.D
 Sergaw Hable Selassie and others: 1050 A.D.

But most of them tend to accept the one argued by Conti Rossini.
 assumptions regarding the origin of the word Zagwe
Conti Rossini states that the word Zagwe drives from an
Agaw word which means “king” or “principal”.
Some writers also claim that it is an abbreviation of
“Zewge Mikael,” the Christian name of Mera
T/Haymanot, the founder of the dynasty.
Others believe that it drives from the word “Agaw”, the
place where the tribe originate. The Agaw are one of the
most ancient peoples of north-central Ethiopia. They had
long been included within the Aksumite Empire.
The fourth assumption is that the word derives from the
Ge’ez verb “አገየየ” which means “to pursue or to
persecute.” Hence Zagwe means “persecutor.”
 Emergence and consolidation of Zagwe Dynasty

Following the decline of Aksum, there was a general south ward

shift of the center of Ethiopian polity. The Aksumite themselves
probably contributed to this change (shift). According to
traditional and written sources, we find references to the
Aksumite move of the capital city to the south.
1) There is the flight of De’l Na’od, the last Aksumite king to the south with the
rise of Gudit in 940 A.D. From this we can assume that both the external
and internal pressures from enemies of the Aksumite state forced the move.
2) The last Aksumite king De’l Na’od had given his daughter in marriage to
Mera T/Haymanot, one of the Agaw commanders who came from Bugna in
Lasta. This commander revolted against his father- in- law and after
defeating him in battle seized the throne. This story clearly implies the
continuity of the Aksumite political tradition in the founding of the Zagwe
dynasty.
 Cont..
About the middle of 12th C, the Ethiopian state reappeared with its centre
in what is today Lalibala, in the Agaw interior of Wag and Lasta, under a
new Christian ruling house called the Zagwe dynasty.
When the power of Aksum declined in its northern provinces, it was
among the Agaw that the state took shelter, maintaining its centre there
at least four centuries.
The centre of this new state was located in the districts of Bugna in Lasta,
more exactly at a place called Adafa near the present site of Lalibala.
The Agaw of this region had long been converted to Christianity and they
continued the ancient Aksumite political traditions almost intact.
Their territory included most of the highland provinces of the Aksumite
kingdom in the north.
In the south, their power extended at least as far south as northern
Shewa.
They also encouraged trade from the coasts of the Red Sea and the Gulf of
Aden through the Dahlak Island and the port of Zeila, respectively.
 Achievement of Zagwe
Revival of International Relations:-The Zagwe pursued an active
policy of re-establishing more regular contacts with Egypt and the Holy
place in Jerusalem.
Revival of Ge’ez:-This seems to have brought about a revival in Ge’ez
literature with the introduction of several documents which were later
translated into Ge’ez.
Development in trade
Construction of Church:- Another brilliant architectural achievement of
the period is the construction of many beautiful monolithic churches.
These churches are called monolithic because they were chiseled out of
rock.
Rock-hewn churches were not new and there are many of them belonging
to earlier periods in many parts of Tigray. But it was during the Zagwe
period that this tradition attained its highest level of refinement. Thus the
Zagwe churches, reckoned to be some of the finest architectural and artistic
achievements of the Christian world, have been recognized by UNESCO as
part of the world cultural Heritage.
 Church Building
Group I Group II Group III

1. Bete Medahne Alem 7. Bete Gebriel-Rufael 11. Bete Giyorgis

2. Bete Maryam 8. Bete Merqoryos

3. Bete Mesqel 9. Bete Abba Libanos
4. Bete Denagil 10. Bete Amanuel
5. Bete Mikael
6. Bete Golgota
Group-one are built very close together. There is a channel
connecting them. Group two are located about some distances from
group one. Bete Giyorgis is isolated from other churches. It has
cross-shaped roof. It is also the most refined, well-designed and
well-finished one.
Partial views of rock hewn churches of lalibela
Bete Giyorgis
Bete Medhanie Alem
Bete Mariam
Bete Abba Libanos
Bete Amanuel
Bete Gotgota
 Cont..

With regard to the nature and style of their

construction, the churches of Lalibela can also
be divided into three groups.
a) Cave Churches: These are similar to a natural cave.
They have one entrance and some internal divisions
and decorations. Bete Mesqel is a cave church.
b) Semi-hewn Churches: These churches are not
totally separated from the surrounding rock. Bete
Golgota, Bete Denagil, Bete Libanos, Bete Merqoryos
are semi-monolithic churches.
c) Hewn (Monolithic) churches: They are churches
which are completely separated (carved out) from
living rock. They are hewn on all sides including the
roof. Bête Medhane Alem (which is the largest), Bete
Maryam and Bete Giyorgis are hewn churches.
 Why Lalibela construct the rock-hewn churches?
1) Many Christians went to Jerusalem:-
 It was believed that a Christian should visit the Holly land at least
once in their life.
 Thus many Ethiopians traveled through the deserts of Sudan and
Egypt to Jerusalem.
 Many of them lost their life before arriving to Jerusalem. King
Lalibela knew this problem.
 So he wanted to build another Jerusalem in Ethiopia as substitute.
The construction of these churches represented an attempt by
Lalibela to discourage pilgrims from journeying to Jerusalem.
2) King Lalibela was much devoted Christian.
 He was expanding Christianity in his kingdom.

 The building of churches was part of the expansion of Christianity

during the Zagwe rule.
 Cont..

3. Oral tradition in Ethiopia however,

attributes the work to the copts who came
to Ethiopia due to religious persecution.
4. The 16th century Portuguese traveler,
Francisco Alvarez was informed that “all
the work on these churches was done in 24
years…they were made by
Gibtas[Egyptians]…”
 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE ROCK-
HEWN CHURCHES
Religion:- The churches were a source of inspiration and hope for
Ethiopian Christians
Architecture
Art
Economic Significance:- For Ethiopia, these
churches were, and still are, of economic importance.
Today, Roha is one of the most popular tourist attraction
sites in the country.
 Decline of Zagwe
The Zagwe dynasty survived until 1270 AD. Sometimes
before 1270, the dynasty seems to be weakened by the
following factors.
Problem of political succession:- rulers were
unable to arrange a smooth political succession
Lack of support from Church
Ant-Zagwe propaganda
The Emergence of Zeila as import- export
business center controlled by Muslims
 Early contacts of Ethiopia and the outside
world

1)Ethiopia and Egypt

Ethiopia had relations with Egypt from time
immemorial
They have been interdependent for their spiritual
and material existence
There was also extensive trade links with
Pharaonic Egypt over a long period of time
 2) Ethiopia and South Arabia
Ancient Ethiopia and the Horn had relations with all the kingdoms of
South Arabian
There were four kingdoms in South Arabia: Hadramaut, Ma’in, Saba
and Kataban.
For demographic and economic reasons, some people of South
Arabian particularly from Sabeans, emigrated to northern Ethiopia.
From these people, only two tribes were well known today i.e. the
Habashat and Agazian
There were place name similarities in northern Ethiopia and South
Arabia. For example:
 Sahart in Tigray - Sahartan in South Arabia
 Hauzen in Tigray – Hausan in South Arabia
 Southwest of Yeha, Madarad in Tigray – Madran in South Arabia
 Ahsea in Tigray- Ahsiyah in South Arabia
 Coloe in Eritrea- Cullai in South Arabia
 Serae in Eritrea- Sarwan in South Arabia
 Mereb River in Eritrea- Marib Dam in South Arabia
 Asab in Eritrea- Saba in South Arabia.
 Cont..
With the strong commercial and cultural contact
with the South Arabian region, there were exchanges
of ideas, beliefs, religion, language and technology.
Thus, ancient Ethiopia adopted south Arabian
 Technology (architecture, irrigation, agriculture)
 Language (The introduction of Sabean language as a literary
language)
 Religion (existence of same traditional belief both in Ethiopia and
South Arabia)
 Political organization (The Mukarib system in which a king
experienced absolute power had hold three power. He acted as
high priest, absolute judge and commander-in-chief of the army. )
 3) Ethiopia and Israel

Ethiopia had relations with Israel.

 The relations began through commerce and then
developed into the political sphere etc.
The Queen of Sheba went to Jerusalem for seeking
King Solomon’s wisdom
 4) Ethiopia and the Greco-Roman World

Unlike the Egyptian, Ethiopian relation with Mediterranean world is

relatively recent
The Greeks came to Ethiopia for three reasons:
 To the source of the Nile valley,
 To hunt elephant and
 the fertile land of Ethiopia attracted them
A contact was not limited to trade.
Greek culture was also developed.
Greek became a literary language of Ethiopia
Political Relations: Alexander the great was the first king to conquer
different countries of the East and expanded his dominion as far as
India. According to the Christian writer, there was a queen of Ethiopia
called Candace. Alexander came to Ethiopia and was
conquered/caught by her love.
 Land tenure system in Ethiopia

Land tenure means the right of holding or using land.

It is the system of land ownership.
On the other hand, the rules and regulations about the holding
and use of land in the society is called the Land Tenure
System.
The most ancient system of land holding is the communal
land tenure system.
communal land tenure system is characterized by all
members of society having communal right to land in
accordance with the ancient organization of society that based
on the family, the clan and other larger lineage groups.
Communal right to land is a group right.
 Forms of land ownership
1) Rist
It is the form of land tenure which developed in the highlands of northern
Ethiopia.
Theoretically, rist was a group or communal right. In practice, however,
the land is owned by the group family.
It divided and re-divided among the ancestors of the founder of the land
through time.
It inherited within the family for generation.
It is a kind of birth right to the land.
It is a right enjoyed by members who were born on the land and belong to
a particular family or clan settled on that land.
The ancestors of the founder (አቅኚ አባት) of a certain area or land owned
the land as a community.
rist land is the weakest form of private property.
Individuals are not the owners of the land.
They had only possession and use right.
They had no right of sell. Under this system, the rist owner had the right
to distribute his land to his sons and pass it to his grandsons.
In the rist land tenure system there is no land lord or tenancy.
 2) Gult
It is another form of land ownership.
it is not a right to hold land rather it is the right to
collect tribute from land owners.
It is a different kind of institution which emerged with
the earliest processes of state formation in northern
Ethiopia.
For example, if an official is assigned to collect tribute
from peasants of the land who had right on the land,
that area is regarded as his gult.
 Regularly, he had to collect tribute in the form of
grain, honey, butter, cattle, sheep, goats and
homemade cloth from peasant living on his gult.
The official kept part of the tribute for his own as a
salary.
 Reste-Gult
Through time, in some cases there was transformation
in the nature of gult.
Some well placed officials of the state began to be
succeeded by their offspring in their official positions.
 As a result the gult became hereditary.
Institutions like churches and monasteries also came
to acquire hereditary gult rights. These gult rights
which became hereditary were called reste-gult.
The owners of reste-gult exercised administrative,
military, religious and judicial functions in their reste-
gult land and order the inhabitants of that land.
 The Restored ‘Solomonic’ Dynasty
The name “Solomonic” is under quotation marks because the claim
of descent from king Solomon of Israel is only legendary and
cannot be historical proven.
But even as a legend, it was powerful and accepted and thus the
whole legitimacy of state power was dependent on it.
Accordingly, from 1270 when Yekuno Amlak seized power from the
Zagwe until the deposition of Emperor Haile selasse I in 1974, all
Ethiopian monarchs claimed descent from the family of Yekuno
Amlak.
 Thus, the “Solomonic” dynasty can be said to have lasted for over
700 years.
 Like the Zagwe before them, the “Solomonic” monarchs inherited
the traditions and organizational structure of Aksum.
They considered Aksum as the sources of their cultural heritage.
They continued to exercise considerable power in both secular and
religious affairs.
Their connection with the church was so close that they were
regarded as priest-kings.
 Cont..
Immediately after restoration, Yekuno Amlak tried to consolidate
his power.
The emperor moved from place to place.
There was a great territorial expansion.
Yekuno Amlak started the expansion process.
This territorial expansion was accompanied by expansion of
Christianity. This was because there was interdependence between
the church and the state.
With the change of dynasty from Zagwe to “Solomonic” the
relation between the state and the church reached a new level.
Initially, the political center of the new dynasty was around Lake-
Hayq, near Dessie town.
But it gradually shifted south to the districts of Menz, Tugulet,
Bulga and finally to Yerar, Entoto, Menagesha, Wechecha, Furi
and Zequala mountains.
From this central location, the Christian state brought extensive
territories under its rule.
 Cont..
The restored dynasty brought vast provinces under
its rule
 much of the ancient highland provinces administered
by the Aksumite and Zagwe kings
 Eastern Gojjam
 Gonder
 areas in south of the Abay River
 Muslim states of Ifat, Fatagar, Dawaro, Bali and Hadya
(this are very vital for state because the major trade
routes to the port of Zeila and Berbera on the Gulf of
Aden passed through these states)
 the Gurage-speaking areas and some of the Omotic
Kingdoms like Wolayita and Gamo
 Characteristics of “Solomonic” state in the Medieval
period

The absence of a central system of administration

The Medieval state of Ethiopia was not a unitary
state
expansion of evangelization process
Absence of a permanent capital (the monarchs
moved from one province to another with thousands
of retainers). The king would stay in one place for
specific period of time.
 Reason for moving capital

The Medieval monarchs didn’t stay for a longer period of time for the
following reasons.
a) The Problem of Provision:- the king had no his own provision
i.e food and water. He entirely depended on peasants. So, it could
not possible to feed soldiers and officials for longer period of time.
b) Environment: These mobile courts had also negative effect on
the environment as they cleared forest and cut down trees for their
temporary needs. Thus, the area became bare within a matter of
weeks.
c) Political: if the king stayed for long time in one places, he could
not able to control remote areas because of the presence of
frequent conflicts between the Christian kingdom and Muslims.
However, the absence of fixed capital discouraged the erection of
permanent structures like palaces and castles and the arts and
crafts that accompanied them.
 Attempts to establish permanent seat

After the middle of the 15th c, there were some

attempts to develop more permanent centers.

Thus, Emperor Zara Ya’eqob (r.1434-1468) founded

the town of Debre Birhan in 1454.

Be’ede Maryam (r.1468-1478) and Libne Dingel

(r.1508-1540) made similar attempts in establishing

permanent political capitals or centers.
 External relations during the restored dynasty
It had been mentioned that the Zagwe had begun to
revive international contacts with Egypt and the Holy
places in Jerusalem.
The new Solomonic kings continued this tradition and
further extended it to include communication with the
countries around the Mediterranean, the Middle East as
well as the eastern part of the Indian Ocean.
A number of visitors from Egypt, Syria, Persia, Italy,
Vatican, Spain and Portugal visited the Ethiopian royal
court.
Several Ethiopians also traveled and pilgrims to the Holy
places and other religious centers in Egypt, Palestine,
Arabia, Armenia, the Vatican, Spain and Portugal.
 Cont..
As a result of these growing contacts, reports of a
strong Christian kingdom in the Horn of Africa
became wide spread.
This was a legend which began to circulate in Europe
around 1165.
Europeans were informed about the presence of such
a powerful Christian monarch called the Prester
John of Indies.
Europeans were not aware of the location of this
empire.
 Cont...
But there was a general belief that this empire was
located east of Persia and Armenia.
Whereas the name of India was known to the
Europeans. So it was believed that the land of Prester
John was located somewhere in India.
This was the time when Europeans were engaged in a
protracted war known as the Crusades with the
Muslim rulers of Palestine.
 It was also told that Prester John had the aim of
liberating Jerusalem from Turks.
Just as the Europeans were anxious for a Christian ally
in south, the Ethiopians were keen/eager to obtain
what can be called technical assistance.
Christian and Muslim conflicts
 Evangelization
Two monasteries played a leading role in expanding
Christianity. These were Debre Hayq and Debre
Libanos.
 Debre Hayq was established by Iyesus Moa who attended
church education in Debre Damo by Abba Yohanis. Then,
he returned and founded his own monastery.
One of his students was Tekle Hamanot from Shewa who
in turn founded Debre Libanos monastery.
Debre Asbo was the earlier name of Debre Libanos.
Monastic life in central and north central Ethiopia began to
develop as a result of the establishment of two monasteries.
It was also in this period that the 1st serious challenge to the
Ethiopian Orthodox church occupied by the movement
called Ewostatewos Movement.
 The Ewostatewos Movement
Ewostatewos is the name of a person who was born in Tigray
and established his own monastic community in Serae.
This was the most militant and radical movement raising social,
political and religious reforms. The main argument was
Sabbath.
 According to him, Sabbath should be observed as holiday. His
source was the Old Testament.
 The observance of the Sabbath was one of the Ten
Commandments given to Moses.
At the beginning of the movement, there was opposition against
him.
Other religious leaders including the Egyptian patriarch opposed
him. Then, he was disappointed and left to Egypt and passed via
the Holy land to Cyprus and Armenia where he died in 1350s.
 Cont..

The house of Ewostatewos emerged from the

struggle with success.
Towards the end of the reign of king Dawit, the
Ewostatians seem to have acquired complete
freedom of movement throughout the kingdom
(1404).
The final success of the Ewostatians was their
acquisition of complete freedom to observe the
Sabbath.
 Religious Reforms of Zara Ya’eqob
Zara Yaeqob had pro-Sabbath convictions.
 Since he was a theocratic and most despotic ruler, he was much concerned on
the position of his kingdom in a religious sense.
In creating a uniform religious practice among his subjects, he applied very
harsh rules.
Thus, there were political reactions against his high-handed rule. There was an
attempt to remove him from power by some members of the royal family, such
as Amde Meskel.
Though he attempted to bring about a radical change in the religious life of his
people, he led basic contradiction of his own life. He had several wives. One of
them was Elleni from Hadiya.
After the death of Zer’a Ya ‘eqob, she played an important role in Ethiopian
politics.
During the reign of Bede-Maryam (1468-78), Eskinder, Naod and Lebne -
Dengel, she was very active. She built churches such as the Monastery of
Mertulemaryam.
The emperor wanted to end pagan practices by strengthening Orthodox Church.
Ya’eqob wanted to settle the problem of internal conflicts among the Ethiopian
clergy and to the creation of a perfect Church- state union. He designed his own
plan.
 Zara Ya’eqob’s plan to end Pagan practices
The Emperor wanted to end all pagan practices by
strengthening the Orthodox Church as follows:
 He introduced a severe punishment against pagan practice
 Every Christian was required to go to Church on Saturday and
Sunday to attend Church services
 Priests were sent to remote areas to preach Christianity
 People were ordered to have cross on their property and head
 He also brought two bishops-Michael and Gebriel in 1438 to
increase the number of the clergy. He also sought their
cooperation to restore the unity of the Ethiopian Church.
 He saw religious sectarianism as a source of political disunity,
in 1450 Zara Ya’eqob called for the religious council of Debre
Mitamaq in Shewa.
 The religious council of Debre Mitmaq
At the council, the two bishops, the followers of
Ewostatewos, abbotts of the leading monasteries were
invited and allowed to discuss on the religious sects.
Zara Ya’eqob presided/headed over the council. The
gathering was principally intended for the formal
reconciliation of the Ewostatians with the Egyptian
bishops and their Ethiopian followers.
Finally,
the observance of Sabbath was recognized and the
Ewostatians agreed to receive Holy orders from
Egyptian prelates.
 Additional religious reforms of Zara Yaqob
Zara Yaqob made other religious reforms to
strengthen the Orthodox Church. These were
 He granted large tracts of land to monastic communities at
the expense of local chiefs
 Every Christian had to have his own father confessor
 He also tried to solve the shortage of religious books. He
encourages the establishment of a library in every church.
He himself wrote some books like መጽሐፈ-ብርሃን፣ መጽሐፈ-
ስላሴ፤ መጽሐፈ-ምዕላድ ወዘተ. . He was a great writer. This
was the revival of religious literature.
 He encouraged baptism of pagans with rewards and declared
the abolition of all forms of pagan worship.
 He ordered the abbots of monasteries to make round trips of
inspection escorted/ acompained by his troops to supervise
religious programs.
 Peasantry during the Medieval period
During the medieval period, peasants were able to produce agricultural
products abundantly because the land was fertile. But they had some
problems. These were
a) Tribute:- This was the greatest burden for peasants. Tribute items
were including grain, cloth, butter, honey and cattle. Horses and mules
were also given as tribute. Cloth was very important for the king because
it used to make tents. Most tributes were paid annually. The worst of all is
that tributes were not used for exchange but was consumed by the king
and his followers. This damaged the economy and agriculture remained
subsistence
b) Disasters (famine and locust): locust raid was a serious problem
in medieval period. Starting from lowlands, locusts followed the direction
of wind and consumed everything, which is green. Then peasants
remained with nothing. Famine could also be the result of shortage of
rain. There was frequent famine in the medieval period.
c) Feeding the Soldiers: Food and water was free of charge for
soldiers. During the military campaigns peasants were forced to provide
everything they had.
d) Problem of Travelers: peasants should accompany travelers (both