IM 205

Business Research Methods

By Masele, J.J. (PhD)
 Meaning of research
• Research is a term used to refer to any kind of investigation
that is intended to uncover interesting or new facts.
• In a general term, Research is an activity that involves
finding out, in a more or less systematic way, things you did
not know.
• A more academic interpretation is that research involves
finding out about things that no-one else knew either.
• It is about advancing the frontiers of knowledge.
• It is also an opportunity for making scientific observations
with the aim of making empirical generalizations which
should support, contradict or suggest modifications in the
theory.
 Research Methods
• Research methods are a range of tools that are
used for different types of enquiry.
• They are the techniques you use to do research.
• They represent the tools that provide you with
ways to collect, sort and analyze information so
that you can come to some conclusions.
• In all cases, it is necessary to know what the
correct tools are for answering certain enquiry,
and how to use them to best effect.
• This means,
– If you use the right sort of methods for your
particular type of research, then you should be
able to convince other people that your
conclusions have some validity, and that the new
knowledge you have created is soundly based.
• The practice of research is closely bound up
with the theoretical developments that were
promoted by philosophers and key thinkers
and practitioners in the sciences, right back to
the ancient Greeks.
• The debate about knowledge and how we
acquire it is rooted in philosophical thought
 Characteristics of Research
• Originates from a question or a problem
• Requires a clear articulation of a goal
• Follows a specific plan of procedures
• Usually divides the principles problem into more
manageable sub-problems
• Guided by specific problems question or hypothesis
• Accepts certain critical assumptions (i.e. underlying theories
or ideas about how the world works)
• Requires collection and interpretation of data in attempting
to resolve the problem that initiated the research.
• By its nature, it is cyclic/spiral/herical
WHAT YOU CAN DO WITH RESEARCH?
• Some of the ways it can be used one to:
• Categorise-This can be useful in explaining which
‘things’ belong together and how.
• Describe-It attempts to examine situations in order to
establish what is the norm, i.e. what can be predicted
to happen again under the same circumstances.
• Explain-This is a descriptive type of research
specifically designed to deal with complex issues.
– It aims to move beyond ‘just getting the facts’ in order to
make sense of the myriad other elements involved, such
as human, political, social, cultural and contextual.
 What research can do…Cont…
• Evaluate-making judgments about the quality (in an absolute sense
or on a comparative basis) of objects or events.
– To be useful, the methods of evaluation must be relevant to the
context and intentions of the research.
• Compare-Two or more contrasting cases can be examined to
highlight differences and similarities between them, leading to a
better understanding of phenomena.
• Correlate-The relationships between two phenomena are
investigated to see whether and how they influence each other.
– As just a loose link at one extreme or a direct link when one
phenomenon causes another.
– These are measured as levels of association.
• Predict- Predictions of possible future behavior or
events basing on existing of strong relationship
(known relationship) between two or more
characteristics or events in the past. There should
exist in similar circumstances in the future, leading to
predictable outcomes.
• Control-Once you understand an event or situation,
you may be able to find ways to control it.
– For this you need to know what the cause and effect
relationships are and that you are capable of exerting
control over the vital ingredients
 Types of Research
• On the basis of the aim of reasech, there are two
types of research, that is pure (basic) and applied
research.
– Pure (basic) research aims at extending knowledge
for the sake of it without direct linkage of knowledge
to its direct application to solve immediate problems.
• Pure research examines the validity of general statements
about relationships involving fundamental processes.
• It develops knowledge about general principles that may
account for a wide range of specific activities.
– Applied research- has the goal of solving
immediate practical problems.
• It attempts to explain phenomena with immediate
public policy implications. It provides knowledge that
has an immediate practical use to solve problems.
• E.g. Investigation of factors leading Bcom failures in
Accounting subjects
• On the basis of inherent ability of controlling
variables, there are experimental and non-
experimental researches
– An experimental research-one in which the
researcher is able to manipulate and directly control
the independent variables
– A non-experimental research-one in which the
researcher doest not have direct control over
independent variables because their manifestations
have already occurred due to being inherently not
manipulatable.
• Social science research is a non experimental research, and
thus direct control of independent variables is not possible.
 Why Business research?
• Business research is undertaken to reduce uncertainty and
focus decision making. In more ambiguous circumstances,
management may be totally unaware of a business problem.
Alternatively, someone may be scanning the environment for
opportunities.
– For example, an entrepreneur may have a personal interest in
softball and baseball. She is interested in converting her hobby into
a profitable business venture and hits on the idea of establishing an
indoor softball and baseball training facility and instructional center.
However, the demand for such a business is unknown. Even if there
is sufficient demand, she is not sure of the best location, actual
services offered, desired hours of operation, and so forth.
– Some preliminary research is necessary to gain insights into the
nature of such a situation.
– Without it, the situation may remain too ambiguous to make more
than a seat-of-the-pants decision. In this situation, business
research is almost certainly needed.
 Types of Business Reaserch
• Business research can be classified on the basis of either technique or
purpose.
• Experiments, surveys, and observational studies are just a few
common research techniques.
• Classifying research by its purpose, such as the situations described
above, shows how the nature of a decision situation influences the
research methodology.
• The types of business research include:
1. Exploratory
2. Descriptive
3. Explanatory
4. Causal
5. Evaluative
• Matching the particular decision situation with the right type of
research is important in obtaining useful research results.
 Types of Business Research
• Any Social science research, can be among the following: exploratory,
descriptive, explanatory, causal or evaluative.
1. Exploratory
• Also termed as formulative research studies
• Main purpose is that of formulating point of view with major
emphasis being discovery of ideas and insights to obtain insights and
gain a clear idea of the problem.
• The working hypotheses built from an operational Exploratory
research can be used to help identify and clarify the decisions that
need to be made.
• These preliminary research activities can narrow the scope of the
research topic and help transform ambiguous problems into well-
defined ones that yield specific research objectives.
• After such exploration, the researcher should know exactly which
data to collect during the formal phases of the project and how to
conduct the project.
• Techniques employed include four basic categories : previous
research, pilot studies, case studies, and experience surveys.
2. Descriptive research
– Relevant for studying phenomenon or social group to know it well
– Descriptive studies involve comparing the phenomenon being
studied with the situation in the same group and other groups
overtime.
• Its research tries to “paint a picture” of a given situation by
addressing who, what, when, where, and how questions
• Descriptive research often helps describe market segments.
– For example, researchers used descriptive surveys to describe
consumers who are heavy consumers (buy a lot) of organic food
products.
– It could be interns of geographical location, age, psycho-graphical
differences etc.
• 3. Explanatory social science research-goes
beyond describing a phenomenon, especially
where the description is already known.
• For example, if a new group of religious converts or political
party followers is already known, an explanatory research may
be done to find how the group members join the new groups
and why people undergo proselytism.
• Or . If it is already known that some SMEs grow with debt
financing and some fail, then an explanatory research may be
done to find how some SMEs grow with debt financing and
others not?
• There are two types of explanation
– Deductive-one that derived (deduced) from established
laws, theories, or stereotypes.
• It is reasoning from general to specific conclusions.
• That is reaching a conclusion by applying known general premises
– e.g. If analysts need work station, and John is analyst,
then John need a workstation
– Inductive-the logical process of establishing a general
proposition on the basis of observation of particular facts.
– E.g. Abel and Kalisti, who are Kikuyu by tribe behave
entrepreneurially . Therefore all Kikuyu members behave
entrepreneurially
– Deductive and inductive explanations can be valid or
invalid.
 Differences between Deductive and Inductive Approaches to Research
Deductive Inductive

Scientific principles Gaining an understanding of the meanings

human attach to events

Moving from theory to data A close understanding of the research

context

The need to explain causal relationships between variables The collection of qualitative data

The collection of quantitative data A more flexible structure to permit

changes of research emphasis as the
research progresses

The application of controls to ensure validity of data A realization that the researcher is part of
the research process

The operationalization of concepts to ensure clarity of definition Less concern with the need to generalize

A highly structured approach

Researcher is independent of what is being researched, and needs to select

samples of sufficient size to generalize conclusions
Wheel of Sciences

Deductive

Inductive
• Besides it seeks to finding how and why about
phenomena, such that it is possible to predict
future events.
– Prediction is foretelling an event before it occurs.
– The ability to make correct prediction is one of the
most important qualities social science research.
– If the predicated event is good, such as economic
growth efforts are made to let it happen, while
preventive measures are taken where a predicted
event is bad. e.g. riot at work places
4. Evaluative Social Science Research
• A research which seeks to determine whether a certain social
intervention has produced the intended results.
• For example, studying results of adoption rate of new technologies
disseminated or the extent to which socio-economic strategies
addressing particular problems have succeeded or failed.
• It is also concerned with development of indicators of the quality
of social life and economic development that have existed for some
time.
• It aims at generating answers to policy-makers, funding,
organisations, planners and programme staff for questions like:
– Is the intervention reaching the appropriate target group?
– Is it implemented in the ways specified?
– Is it effective?
– How muh does it cost?
– What are its costs vis-à-vis the effectiveness of the project or
programme?
4. Causal Research
• If a decision maker knows what causes important outcomes
like sales, stock price, and employee satisfaction, then he or
she can shape firm decisions in a positive way.
• Causal inferences are very powerful because they lead to
greater control.
• Causal research seeks to identify cause and-effect
relationships. When something causes an effect, it means it
brings it about or makes it happen. The effect is the
outcome. Rain causes grass to get wet. Rain is the cause and
wet grass is the effect.
• Note: Each Research stage is dependent upon the
others as outlined below:
– One cannot research unless one has a clearly stated
researchable problem
– a problem must be converted into research objective
– Hypothesis formulation aims at finding tentative answers
to the problem, the hypothesis depends on the problem.
– A research has to have knowledge to design research and
identify levels of measurement befitting the hypothesis
and data to be collected and statistical packages to be
used.
– Irreparable harm can be done to a research by performing
one of the early stages inadequately. E.g writing a
hypothesis which is not testable or using inappropriate
sampling methods
• Before causal studies are undertaken, researchers must
have a good understanding of the phenomena being
studied.
• For example, exploratory research builds the foundation
for descriptive research, which usually establishes the
basis for causal research.
• Causal research designs can take a long time to
implement.
• Also, they often involve intricate designs that can be very
expensive.
 Stages of a Business Research
• Define stages exists to facilitate questioning how
knowledge was obtained.
i. Problem statement and justification
ii. Research objectives/research question/Hypothesis
formulation
iii. Research design
iv. Measurement of variables
v. Sampling
vi. Data collection
vii. Data coding and analysis
viii. Result interpretation and generalization
Flowchart of the Business Research Process
 Research process a cyclic process
• In exploring an area, one comes across additional
problems that need resolving, and so the process must
begin anew. Research begets more research.
• Starts with problem and ends with generalization. The
latter is the beginning of another circle.
• From problem- hypothesis, research design and goes
to other stages
• Alternatively, if the hypothesis is partly proven,
reasons need to be attributed e.g. inadequate sample
design or measurement of key concepts etc., and
suggest issues for further research.
• Even if the research is very successful, it may be
important to repeat (replicate) it to demostrate
that the original findings are not coincidental.
– i.e. to prove the results using the same procedure
– Or to refute previous results
– Test the findings in different environments, and
– Find areas or steps worth amending to get better
results.
• Assignment:
– To read why research is a cyclic process
 Research problem identification
• A research problem is an intellectual stimulus or some
feeling of discomfort to a researcher calling for an answer
in terms of scientific inquiry.
• Finding a problem is easy but identifying one that is
researchable is a bit difficult.
• Sources of research problem may include:
– One’s own observation/experiences/experimentation
– Curiosity
– New ideas;
– Formal theory;
– Literature review etc.
– Commonly held lay belief to prove or refute them.
• Getting a researchable problem from one’s own
observation or new idea is the best approach for it denotes
innovativeness and knowledge to be generalized is likely to
be new.
• For a problem to be researchable, it must meet three
conditions, namely:-
i. There should be discrepancy between what is known and
what should be known or what exists and what should exist.
ii. The reasons for this difference should be unclear so that it
makes sense to develop a research questions; and,
iii. There should be more possible answers to the question or
solution to the problem. If there is only one possible answer
and it is known, there is no need to do a research on a
problem since that would be duplication of knowledge.
• NOTE: A well-defined problem facilitates other
stages but poorly defined one leads to confusion.
An Example of un-researchable problem
• A group of women are complaining that they are denied credit by a
nearby credit programme that is there by giving credit to women for
income-generating activities (IGAs) to alleviate poverty. However, a
report from the same credit programme indicates that it has given
credit to all of them.
– Discrepancy: All the women are supposed to have been given credit, but they
say that they are denied credit
– Question: Why are they denied credit?
– Answer: They have not yet paid their previous credit, which is a condition for
being given another credit
• Although the problem and discrepancy exist, no need of doing a
research since the answer to the problem is known. The women
should abide by the conditions attached to the credit to get it.
 Problem statement/defintion
• A problem is stated precisely in one or two sentences
and clarified in a few more sentences.
– Indicators of what a researcher claims to be a problem
should be given.
– Citation of the sources of information may be important.
• Statement of a research problem is important because:
– It enables the researcher to clarify the problem and
possible factors that contribute to it.
– It facilitates making decisions concerning the focus and
scope of the research.
– It enables the researcher to pool the knowledge of the
problem provided by several resource persons.
 TECHNIQUE INVOLVED IN
DEFINING A PROBLEM
• The technique for the purpose involves the
undertaking of the following steps generally
one after the other:
i. statement of the problem in a general way;
ii. understanding the nature of the problem;
iii. surveying the available literature
iv. developing the ideas through discussions; and
v. rephrasing the research problem into a working
proposition.
1. Statement of the problem in a general way
• Stated in a broad general way, keeping in view either some
practical concern or some scientific or intellectual interest
• Researcher must immerse himself thoroughly in the subject
matter concerning which he wishes to pose a problem
• Preliminary survey, guidance by subject experts may be
needed. Then the researcher may narrow it down.
• The problem stated in a broad general way may contain
various ambiguities which must be resolved by cool thinking
and rethinking over the problem while considering feasibility
aspect.
2. Understanding the nature of the problem
• Involves understanding problem’s origin and nature clearly
• The best way of understanding the problem is to consider all
those points that induced a researcher to make a general
statement concerning the problem
• The researcher can enter into discussion with those who have
a good knowledge of the problem concerned or similar other
problems.
• It is important to keep in view the environment within which
the problem is to be studied and understood
3. Surveying the available literature
• All available literature concerning the problem at hand must
necessarily be surveyed and examined before a definition of
the research problem is given
• This means that the researcher must be well-conversant with
relevant theories in the field, reports and records as also all
other relevant literature.
• He must devote sufficient time in reviewing of research
already undertaken on related problems.
• This is done to find out what data and other materials, if any,
are available for operational purposes. This serves to narrow
the problem itself as well as the technique that might be used
• This would also help a researcher to know if there are
certain gaps in the theories, or whether the existing
theories applicable to the problem under study are
inconsistent with each other, or whether the findings of
the different studies do not follow a pattern consistent
with the theoretical expectations and so on.
• Studies on related problems are useful for indicating the
type of difficulties that may be encountered in the
present study as also the possible analytical
shortcomings.
• At times such studies may also suggest useful and even
new lines of approach to the present problem.
4. Developing the ideas through discussions
• Discussion concerning a problem often produces useful
information
• A researcher must discuss his problem with his colleagues and
others who have enough experience in the same area or in
working on similar problems.
• This will help him sharpen his focus of attention on specific
aspects within the field.
• Discussions with such persons should not only be confined to
the formulation of the specific problem at hand, but should
also be concerned with the general approach to the given
problem, techniques that might be used, possible solutions
etc.
5. Rephrasing the research problem
• Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the research problem
into a working proposition.
• Once the nature of the problem has been clearly understood, the
environment (within which the problem has got to be studied) has
been defined, discussions over the problem have taken place and
the available literature has been surveyed and examined,
rephrasing the problem into analytical or operational terms is not
a difficult task
• Then put the research problem in as specific terms as possible so
that it may become operationally viable and may help in the
development of working hypotheses.
In addition to what has been stated above, the
following points must also be observed while
defining a research problem:
a) Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings used in the
statement of the problem, should be clearly defined.
b) Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research problem
should be clearly stated.
c) A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation (i.e., the
criteria for the selection of the problem) should be provided.
d) The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available must
also be considered by the researcher in defining the problem.
e) The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to
be studied must be mentioned explicitly in defining a research problem.
 What kind of business problems
might need a research study?
• Most work in business organizations, in
whatever sector or ownership, will require
research activities.
• E.g. what are the most effective ways of
introducing a new employee to the
organization?
• Or how do marketing strategies differ in
tourism industry?
 Problem justification/significance
• In order to justify a research problem, the following things
are considered:
– Usefulness of the research results. How is the problem to be
studied important? What will the information to be collected
help to improve the previous situation?
• Practical implication, knowledge contribution, policy implication &
implication to the firm(s)
– Timeliness of the problem. The problem should be current and
various stakeholders pertinent to it should be identified.
– Feasibility. One need to balance between the available time and
the scope (factors) related to the problem during the available
financial and manpower resources one has.
– Duplication of information. Must identify what is known on the
problem and what has been done and, do what has not been
done to find what is unknown.
 Research objectives
• Research objectives are the goals to be achieved by
conducting research.
• The genesis of the research objectives lies in the type of
decision situation faced.
– The objectives may involve exploring the possibilities of
entering a new market.
– Alternatively, they may involve testing the effect of some
policy change on employee job satisfaction.
• Different types of objectives lead to different types of
research designs.
• The research objective may be to simply clarify a situation,
define an opportunity, or monitor and evaluate current
business operations.
 STATING RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
• After identifying and clarifying the problem, the
researcher must formally state the research
objectives.
• As such, the research objectives represent a contract
of sorts that commits the researcher to producing
the needed research.
• These research objectives drive the rest of the
research process.
• Your research may begin with a general focus
research question that then generates more
detailed research questions, or you may use your
general focus research question as a base from
which you write a set of research objectives.
• Objectives are more generally acceptable to the
research community as evidence of the
researcher’s clear sense of purpose and
direction.
• It is also contended that research objectives
are likely to lead to greater specificity than
research or investigative questions.
• Other wise in most cases, the research
questions are interrogative forms of research
objectives
Phrasing research questions as research objectives
• Objectives will be better if they pass the well-
known SMART test.
– Specific. What precisely do you hope to achieve from
undertaking the research?
– Measurable. What measures will you use to determine
whether you have achieved your objectives? (e.g. secured a
career-level first job in software design).
– Achievable. Are the targets you have set for yourself
achievable given all the possible constraints?
– Realistic. Given all the other demands upon your time, will
you have the time and energy to complete the research on
time?
– Timely. Will you have time to accomplish all your objectives
in the time frame you have set?
 Research Design
• A research design encompasses the methodology and procedures
employed to conduct scientific research (Walliaman, 2011).
• It is a grand plan of approach to a research methodology.
• Scholars (Yin, 2009; Jalil, 2013) refer research design to the logical
structure of the inquiry, undertaken to ensure that the evidence
collected enables a researcher to answer his/her research
questions or to test theories as unambiguously and in a convincing
way as possible.
• It articulates what data is required, from whom, and how it is going
to answer the research question (Jalil, 2013).
• Without attending to these matters at the beginning, the
conclusions drawn may normally be weak and unconvincing and fail
to answer the research question.
• It thus affects what information is to be collected (Walliman, 2011).
• It is argued that there is no single best research
design.
• But, any research design must be governed by
research philosophy that determines the
approach and strategy in terms of
– population,
– unit of analysis,
– sampling procedure,
– sampling size
– Data collection methods, and
– Data analysis
• Consider the researcher who must forecast sales for the
upcoming year.
– Some commonly used forecasting methods are surveying
executive opinion, collecting sales force composite
opinions, surveying user expectations, projecting trends,
and analyzing environmental factors.
• The ability to select the most appropriate research design
develops with experience.
• Inexperienced researchers often jump to the conclusion
that a survey methodology is usually the best design
because they are most comfortable with this method.
• A good design is often characterized by adjectives like flexible,
appropriate, efficient, economical and so on.
• The design which gives the smallest experimental error is
supposed to be the best design in many investigations.
• The question of good design is related to the purpose or
objective of the research problem and also with the nature of
the problem to be studied.
• Generally, the design which minimizes bias and maximizes the
reliability of the data collected and analyzed is considered a
good design.
• The design which yields maximal information and provides an
opportunity for considering many different aspects of a
problem is considered most appropriate and efficient design
in respect of many research problems.
• Research design appropriate for a particular research
problem, usually involves the consideration of the
following factors:
i. the means of obtaining information;
ii. the availability and skills of the researcher and his
staff, if any;
iii. the objective of the problem to be studied;
iv. the nature of the problem to be studied; and
v. the availability of time and money for the research
work.
• If the research study happens to be an exploratory or a formulative
one, wherein the major emphasis is on discovery of ideas and
insights,
– the research design most appropriate must be flexible enough to permit the
consideration of many different aspects of a phenomenon.
• But when the purpose of a study is accurate description of a
situation or of an association between variables (or in what are
called the descriptive studies), accuracy becomes a major
consideration.
– a research design which minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the
evidence collected is considered a good design.
• Studies involving the testing of a hypothesis of a causal relationship
between variables
– require a design which will permit inferences about causality in addition to the
minimization of bias and maximization of reliability.
• Besides, the availability of time, money, skills
of the research staff and the means of
obtaining the information must be given due
weightage while working out the relevant
details of the research design such as
experimental design, survey design, sample
design and the like.
 Research design based on time
• With respect to time, there are three main
types of research designs, that is
– cross-sectional,
– longitudinal (time series) and
– case studies.
• Cross-sectional studies
– Study a cross-section of the population at a single
point in time and data collection is done once
– It is the most design in survey research
– By survey research is a study in which data are
collected at a single point in time.
• Longitudinal (time series) studies
– Involves data gathered over an extended period of
time, generally several weeks or months but often
several years.
– It is however expensive, hence can’t use large sample
like cross-sectional studies
– Two types of longitudinal studies are known
• Panel longitudinal studies-interviewing the same
respondents throughout the study
• Trend longitudinal studies-studying different people of the
same characteristics in the same population.
• Case studies
– An in-depth examination of one or a few cases, in
contrast to a more superficial cross-sectional
study of a large sample.
– Since members of a group to be studied tend to
be homogenous, a sample size need not be large
in a case study.
 Important Concepts Relating to Research
Design
1. Dependent and independent variables
• A concept which can take on different quantitative values
is called a variable
– As such the concepts like weight, height, income are all
examples of variables
• Qualitative phenomena (or the attributes) are also quantified on
the basis of the presence or absence of the concerning
attribute(s).
• Phenomena which can take on quantitatively different values
even in decimal points are called ‘continuous variables e.g. age
• Variables which can only be expressed in integer values, they
are non-continuous variables or in statistical language ‘discrete
variables’ e.g. number of children.
• If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other
variable, it is termed as a dependent variable, and,
• the variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is
termed as an independent variable.
• For instance,
– if we say that height depends upon age, then height is a dependent
variable and age is an independent variable.
– Further, if in addition to being dependent upon age, height also
depends upon the individual’s sex, then height is a dependent variable
• and age and sex are independent variables.
– Similarly, readymade films and lectures are examples of independent
variables,
– whereas behavioural changes, occurring as a result of the
environmental manipulations, are examples of dependent variables.
 Age

Height
(1)

Sex

Lectures
Behavioral
(2) changes
Readymade
films
2. Extraneous variable: Independent variables that are
not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the
dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables.
• Suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that
“there is a relationship between children’s gains in social
studies achievement and their self-concepts”.
• In this case self-concept is an independent variable and
social studies achievement is a dependent variable.
• Intelligence may as well affect the social studies
achievement, but since it is not related to the purpose of
the study undertaken by the researcher, it will be termed
as an extraneous variable.
• Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a result of
extraneous variable(s) is technically described as an ‘experimental
error’.
• A study must always be so designed that the effect upon the
dependent variable is attributed entirely to the independent
variable(s), and not to some extraneous variable or variables.
3. Control
• One important characteristic of a good research design is to
minimize the influence or effect of extraneous variable(s).
• The technical term ‘control’ is used when we design the study
minimizing the effects of extraneous independent variables. In
experimental researches, the term ‘control’ is used to refer to
restrain experimental conditions.
4. Confounded relationship
• When the dependent variable is not free from the
influence of extraneous variable(s), the relationship
between the dependent and independent variables is
said to be confounded by an extraneous variable(s).
5. Research hypothesis
• The research hypothesis is a predictive statement
that relates an independent variable to a dependent
variable.
• Usually a research hypothesis must contain, at least,
one independent and one dependent variable.
6. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-
testing research
• When the purpose of research is to test a research hypothesis, it is termed as
hypothesis-testing research.
– It can be of the experimental design or of the non-experimental design.
• Research in which the independent variable is manipulated is termed
‘experimental hypothesis-testing research’ and
• …a research in which an independent variable is not manipulated is called
‘non-experimental hypothesis-testing research’.
– Suppose a researcher wants to study whether intelligence affects reading
ability for a group of students and for this purpose he randomly selects 50
students and tests their intelligence and reading ability by calculating the
coefficient of correlation between the two sets of scores.
• This is an example of non-experimental hypothesis-testing research because herein
the independent variable, intelligence, is not manipulated.
• But now suppose that our researcher randomly selects 50
students from a group of students who are to take a course in
statistics and then divides them into two groups by randomly
assigning 25 to Group A, the usual studies programme, and 25
to Group B, the special studies programme.
• At the end of the course, he administers a test to each group
in order to judge the effectiveness of the training programme
on the student’s performance-level.
– This is an example of experimental hypothesis-testing research
because in this case the independent variable, viz., the type of
training programme, is manipulated.
7. Experimental and control groups
• In an experimental hypothesis-testing research when a group is
exposed to usual conditions, it is termed a ‘control group’, but
when the group is exposed to some novel or special condition,
it is termed an ‘experimental group’.
– In the above illustration, the Group A can be called a control group and
the Group B an experimental group.
• If both groups A and B are exposed to special studies
programmes, then both groups would be termed ‘experimental
groups.’
• It is possible to design studies which include only experimental
groups or studies which include both experimental and control
groups.
8. Treatments
• The different conditions under which experimental and
control groups are put are usually referred to as ‘treatments’.
• In the illustration taken above, the two treatments are the
usual studies programme and the special studies programme.
• Similarly, if we want to determine through an experiment the
comparative impact of three varieties of fertilizers on the
yield of wheat, in that case the three varieties of fertilizers
will be treated as three treatments.
9. Experiment
• The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis,
relating to some research problem, is known as an experiment.
• For example, we can conduct an experiment to examine the
usefulness of a certain newly developed drug.
– Experiments can be of two types viz., absolute experiment and
comparative experiment.
• If we want to determine the impact of a fertilizer on the yield of a crop,
it is a case of absolute experiment;
• but if we want to determine the impact of one fertilizer as compared to
the impact of some other fertilizer, our experiment then will be termed
as a comparative experiment.
• Often, we undertake comparative experiments when we talk of
designs of experiments.
10. Experimental unit(s)
• The pre-determined plots or the blocks, where
different treatments are used, are known as
experimental units.
• Such experimental units must be selected
(defined) very carefully.
• E.g. The difference between research designs in respect of the
exploratory and descriptive research studies can be
conveniently summarised in tabular form as under:
 POSITIVIST VS INTERPRETIVIST/PHENOMENOLOGICAL
THOUGHTS
Mainly two research schools of thoughts opposing each other exist
• POSITIVISM APPROACH unlike enterpretivism claims that reality is
objective and can be described by measureable properties
independent of the observer (researcher) and his/ her instruments
(Sounders et al. 2000; Straub et al. 2005).
• A research is classified as positivist when there are:
– evidence of formal propositions,
– quantifiable measures of variables,
– hypothesis testing, and
– the drawing of inferences about a phenomenon from the sample
to a stated population.
• Research methods: quantitative, experimental etc
• Quantitative research is the research focusing on
measuring and counting facts and relationships among
variables, and that seeks to describe observations
through statistical analysis of data.
• It involves collection of (statistically) large samples of
quantitative data and usually some form of statistical
analysis.
• It is concerned with tabulation or numeric relevance of
various kinds of behavior.
• It is the research that describes phenomena in numbers
and measures instead of words.
• The focus of research is usually predetermined and
deduced from prior research.
 INTERPRETIVISM APPROACH
• Interpretivism unlike positivism claims that people not only
interact with their environment, but also they seek to make
sense out of it through their interpretation of events and
meanings that they draw from the environment.
• Reality is determined by people rather than by objective and
external factors hence, it focuses on attached meanings from
what people do and act, individually or collectively, verbally or
non-verbally.
• Such kind of approach allows for an intimate relationship
between the researcher and subject of interest.
• They lend more to a pragmatic inquiry, and it takes qualitative
research approach.
• In qualitative research, there no formal quantitative
framework are used to generate projections.
• It focuses on experiences, interpretations, impressions or
motivations of an individual(s) that seek to describe how
people view things and why. It relates to beliefs, attitudes and
changing behavior.
• It is primarily concerned with “why”
• Qualitative research deals with information too difficult or
expensive to quantify such as subjective opinions and value
judgments, typically unearthed during interviews of
discussion groups.
• It involves the use of unstructured exploratory techniques
(such as FGD, in-depth interviews, participant observation)
that are based on statistically small sample in order to
understand a problem further.
Features:
• The logic in forming qualitative research designs is often
inductive, which affects how specific and complete the research
design and process will be.
– The qualitative researcher’s task often consists of describing and
understanding people and groups’ particular situations, experiences,
and meanings before developing and/or testing more general theories
and explanations.
• Also, Qualitative research designs are often emergent and
flexible.
– The researcher and research subjects, their relationship, and the
research setting are all subject to development and change.
– Not all aspects of the design can be managed or controlled by the
researcher.
• Finally, the qualitative research process is often non-linear and
non-sequential.
• Data collection and analysis often proceed
simultaneously.
• Thus, when changing the initial question is
necessary, researchers must reanalyze the data
in light of the new question and employ other
techniques to address concerns about the
possibility that the data and/or research
question may have been altered to fit a pre-
existing theory or hypothesis.
 Forms of interview design
• Informal conversional interview,
• General interview guide, and
• Standardized open-ended interview
 Informal conversional interview
• Informal conversional interview relies entirely on the
spontaneous generation of questions in a natural
interaction,
– typically one that occurs as part of ongoing participant
observation fieldwork.
• The researcher does not ask any specific types of
questions, but the questions principally come from “in
the moment experiences” through interaction with
participants as a means for further understanding or
clarification of what the researcher is witnessing or
experiencing at a particular moment.
 The general interview guide
• Interview design has questions that are more structured
than with the informal conversational interview.
• The ways questions are potentially worded in the general
interview guide, depend upon the researcher who is
conducting the interview.
• Therefore, both informal conversional interview and the
general interview guide are most likely to lack
consistency in the way research questions are posed.
(McNamara, 2009).
• Consequently information to be generated is likely to be
unstable or unreliable because of the inconsistency in the
interview questions or because researchers can
interchange the way they pose the questions respectively
 Standardized Open Ended
Interviews
• Involve asking participants identical questions,
but in an open ended form of questions (Gall,
Gall and Borg, 2003).
• The open endedness allowed the participants to
contribute as much as detailed information as
they desired and it also allows the researcher to
probe questions as a means of following up.
• themes and hence coding the data may be
tedious (Creswell, 2008; Borg, 2003)
• Turner (2010) considers standardized open-
ended interviews as the most popular form of
interviewing utilized in qualitative research
studies since they allow the participants to
fully express their viewpoints and experiences.
• Although this method promises for rich data
and reduced biases from participants, they
render some difficulty with extracting similar
themes and hence coding the data may be
tedious.
Main differences-Qualitative& Quantitative
Qualitative Methods Quantitative Methods
Methods include focus groups, in-depth Surveys, structured interviews & observations,
interviews, and reviews of documents for and reviews of records or documents for
types of themes numeric information
Primarily inductive process used to formulate Primarily deductive process used to test pre-
theory or hypotheses specified concepts, constructs, and hypotheses
that make up a theory

More subjective: describes a problem or More objective: provides observed effects

condition from the point of view of those (interpreted by researchers) of a program on a
experiencing it problem or condition
Text-based Number-based
More in-depth information on a few cases Less in-depth but more breadth of information
across a large number of cases
Unstructured or semi-structured response Fixed response options
options
No statistical tests Statistical tests are used for analysis
Can be valid and reliable: largely depends on Can be valid and reliable: largely depends on
skill and rigor of the researcher the measurement device or instrument used

Time expenditure lighter on the planning end Time expenditure heavier on the planning
and heavier during the analysis phase phase and lighter on the analysis phase
Less generalizable More generalizable