Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and

Technology, Topi, Pakistan

ME203
Circuits and Electronic Devices

Lecture No: 04

Instructor
Dr. Abid Imran
------Faculty of Mechanical Engineering------ Fall Semester
1 2021
 Outline of the lecture

• Circuit Terminology
• Measuring instruments
• Series Circuits Analysis

2
 Circuit Terminology-Continued
Loop – A loop is any closed path going through circuit elements.
• Select any node as a starting point and draw a path through elements and nodes until the path comes back
to the node where you started.
• There is only one rule: a loop can visit (pass through) a node only one time. It is ok if loops overlap or
contain other loops.

3 Loops 6 Loops

Mesh – A mesh is a loop that has no other loops inside

it.

3
 Circuit Terminology-Continued
Ground is
• The reference point from which voltages are measured.
• The return path for electric current back to its source.
• Direct physical connection to the Earth, which is important for safety.

Schematic equivalence

The following two schematics are drawn differently

Are these two schematics equivalent?

4
 Circuit Terminology-Continued

Schematic equivalence
To be equivalent, two schematics must:
• Represent every component and source
• Have the same number of nodes
• Each node must be connected to the same branches

• Are all components and sources represented in

both schematics? Yes .
• Do both schematics have the same number of
nodes?
Yes. Both schematics have 2 nodes.
• Is each node connected to the same branches?
– Yes. Each node connects to the three
resistors and a source. The two nodes are marked with orange lines.
The four branches are shown as blue arrows.
5
 Circuit Terminology-Continued

Schematic equivalence

• Not everything is exactly the same in schematic

equivalent.
• The individual point-to-point connections of the lines
between elements are not the same.

• That wire carries the current flowing towards and .

• So always think about current flowing in a branch (flowing in a component

or source), not current flowing in a "wire."
• Currents in "wires" may or may not exist in an equivalent version of the
schematic.
6
 Circuit Terminology-Continued
Drawing a good schematic

• Place inputs on the left, and outputs on the right.

• Let information flow from left to right across the circuit.
• Use up/down on the page to suggest voltage levels. That is, draw higher voltage wires
closer to the top of the page, and lower voltages (like ground) near the bottom of the
page.

• Both drawing are

equivalent?

7
 Measuring instruments

For measurement:
1- Digital Multimeters
2- Clamp meters
3- LCR meters
4- Oscilloscopes

For signal generation:

5- Signal generators

For power supply:

6- Constant (adaptors) and variable power supply

8
 Measuring instruments: DMM

• Voltage, current, and resistance

measurements are commonly required in
electronics work.
• The instrument used to measure voltage is a
voltmeter,
• The instrument used to measure current is an
ammeter, and
• the instrument used to measure resistance is
an ohmmeter.

• Commonly, all three instruments are combined into a single instrument called a digital multimeter,.
• DMMs provide more functions, better accuracy, greater ease of reading, and greater reliability than do
many analog meters.

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 Measuring instruments: Voltages
• To measure voltage, connect the voltmeter across the component for which the voltage is to
be found.
• The negative terminal of the meter must be connected to the negative side of the circuit, and
the positive terminal of the meter must be connected to the positive side of the circuit.

• Always ensure proper probe connections to the multimeter. The red probe to the red socket
with a V sign on it and the black probe in the socket named COM or GND.

10
 Measuring instruments: Current
• To measure current, connect the ammeter/multimeter in series in the branch where the
current needs to be found.
• The negative and positive terminals of the multimeter should be connected in between any
two elements in the branch.
• The sign of the current displayed on the multimeter represents the positive to negative probe.

• There are generally two sockets available for the red probe in case of current measurement
labelled as mA and 10A.
• The red probe for current measurement should be inserted in one of them based on the
expected current range. The black probe in the socket named COM or GND.
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 Measuring instruments: Resistance

• To measure resistance, first turn off the power and disconnect one end or both ends of the
resistor from the circuit; then connect the ohmmeter across the resistor.

NOTE: Measuring resistance while they are connected in the circuits (in-circuit resistance),
may or may not give the right value and it is always advisable to remove the resistance from
the circuit, measure the resistance and then putting it back to your circuit.

12
 Measuring instruments: Clamp meter

• A current clamp or current probe is an electrical device with jaws (which open to allow
clamping around an electrical conductor) to measure DC and AC electrical current without
making contact with the electrical circuit.

• Some clamp meters can measure currents of 1000 A.

• Can also measure, resistance, capacitance, DC and AC

voltage

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 Measuring instruments: LCR meter

• As the name suggests, such meters are

made to specifically measure the resistance,
inductance and capacitance of the passive
circuit elements.

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 Measuring instruments: Functional Generator

• A function generator is an instrument that

produces more than one type of waveform over
wide range of frequencies.

• These generators are also called signal generators

• They provide a wave of function with the

required voltage amplitude, however, their
current providing capability is very low.
• Sinusoidal, triangular, square/pulsating and saw-
tooth wave forms are the most common signals
• In direct current application we don’t need.
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 Measuring instruments: Oscilloscope
• The oscilloscope is basically a graph-displaying device that traces a graph of a measured
electrical signal on its screen.

• In the vertical section there are identical controls for

each of the two channels (CH1 and CH2).
• The Position control lets you move a displayed
waveform up or down vertically on the screen.

• In the horizontal section, the controls

apply to both channels.
• The Position control lets you move a
displayed waveform left or right
horizontally on the screen

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 Measuring instruments: Power Supplies

• A power supply is generally defined as an electronic device that converts ac (alternating

current) from the utility lines to a dc (direct current) voltage

• The purpose of a laboratory power supply is to

provide the required stable dc to the circuit
under test.
• The test circuit can be anything from a simple
resistive network to a complex amplifier or logic
circuit
• For a constant voltage, with almost no noise or
ripple, laboratory power supplies are regulated

The output is constantly sensed and automatically adjusted if it tries to

change because of a change in the line voltage or the load.
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 Series Circuits
• A series circuit provides only one path for current between two points so that the current is the same
through each series resistor.

voltage source is connected

between point A and B

Assembly
Diagram

Schematic Diagram 18
 Series Circuits-Total series Resistance
• The total resistance of a series circuit is equal to the sum of the resistances of each
individual series resistor.
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅 1+ 𝑅 2 +…+ 𝑅𝑛

Total resistance Last resistor in the

series string

Example: Resistance R4?

𝑅𝑡 =𝑅 1+ 𝑅 2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑹 𝟒
𝑅𝑡 − 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅 3=𝑹 𝟒

𝑹 𝟒=1 0 𝑲 𝜴

19
 Series Circuits: current

Series circuit rule for current:

• Because there is only one path, the current everywhere is the same.
• For example, the reading on the first ammeter is 2.0 mA, What do the other
meters read?

2.0 mA 2.0 mA

2.0 mA 2.0 mA

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 Series Circuits: Application of Ohm Law
• Current through any of the series resistors is the same as the
+𝑉 1 −
total current. 𝑅1 𝑅2
• If you know the total applied voltage and the total resistance,
you can determine the total current by Ohm’s law. 𝐼𝑇
𝑉𝑇 𝑅3
𝑉𝑇
𝐼𝑇=
𝑅𝑇

𝑅4
• If you know the voltage drop across one of the series resistors
you can determine the total current by Ohm’s law. 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅 4
𝑉1
𝐼 1 = =¿ 𝐼𝑇
𝑅1

• If you know the total current, you can find the voltage drop across any of the series resistors by
Ohm’s law.
𝑉 1 ¿ 𝐼 1 𝑅1 =¿ 𝐼 𝑇 𝑅1
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 Series Circuits: Application of Ohm Law
• The polarity of a voltage drop across a resistor is positive at the +𝑉 1 −
end of the resistor that is closest to the positive terminal of the 𝑅1 𝑅2
voltage source.
𝐼𝑇
𝑉𝑇 𝑅3
• The current through a resistor is defined to be in a direction
from the positive end of the resistor to the negative end.

• An open in a series circuit prevents current; and, therefore, 𝑅4

there is zero voltage drop across each series resistor.

• The total voltage appears across the points between

which there is an open. =5V

=0
=5V 22
 Series Circuits: Application of Ohm Law
• Examples: Calculate the voltage across each resistor and find the
value of . To what maximum value () can be raised if the current
is to be limited to

Solution:

Voltage across resistor by applying Ohm Law

Total resistor to calculate the

, if current is

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 Series Circuits: Application of Ohm Law
Example: Red LED will always have a 1.7 V across it
Together, the rheostat and the fixed resistor will have a total of
3.3 V across them.
Assume you want current in the LED from 2.5 mA (dim) to a 10 mA
(bright). What would be the value of values of and .
Solution:
Start with the brightest condition 𝑅1=0 Ω
No voltage across and across
𝑉 3.3
Series circuit so same current through & Led. 𝑅2 = = =330 Ω
𝐼 0.01
Total resistance to limit the current to + Now the voltage drop across

𝑉 3.3 𝑹𝟏 =𝑹𝑻 − 𝑹𝟐=𝟗𝟗𝟎 Ω

𝑅𝑇 = = =1.32 𝐾 Ω
𝐼 0.0025

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 Series Circuits: Application of Ohm Law

• Tabulating current, resistance, voltage and power is a

useful way to summarize parameters in a series circuit.

𝑉 =𝐼𝑅 𝑃=𝐼 2 𝑅

I1= 2.74 mA R1= 0.68 kW V1= 1.86 V P1= 5.1 mW

I2= 2.74 mA R2= 1.50 kW V2= 4.11 V P2= 11.3 mW

I3= 2.74 mA R3= 2.20 kW V3= 6.03 V P3= 16.5 mW

IT= 2.74 mA RT= 4.38 kW VS= 12 V PT= 32.9 mW

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 Series Circuits: Voltage source in series

• When two or more voltage sources are in series, the

total voltage is equal to the algebraic sum of the
individual source voltages.

• Voltage sources in series add algebraically. For example,

the total voltage of the sources shown is 27 V

• What is the total voltage if one battery is reversed?

9V
 Series Circuits: Kirchhoff’s voltage law

• The voltages across the resistors (voltage drops) always have

polarities opposite to the source voltage polarity

Kirchhoff’s voltage law is generally stated as:

The sum of all the voltage drops around a single closed path in a
circuit is equal to the total source voltage in that loop.

The algebraic sum of all the voltages (both source and drops)
around a single closed path is zero.
 Series Circuits: Kirchhoff’s voltage law

Find the resistance

Voltage across each resistor (Ohm Law)

Next use KVL to find

𝑽 𝟒=34.3 V

Calculate by using Ohm law.

𝑉 4 34.3
𝑅 4= = =3.43 𝐾 Ω
𝐼 0.01
 Series Circuits: Kirchhoff’s voltage law

• Notice in the series example given earlier that the sum of

the resistor voltages is equal to the source voltage.

𝑉 =𝐼𝑅 𝑃=𝐼 2 𝑅

I1= 2.74 mA R1= 0.68 kW V1= 1.86 V P1= 5.1 mW

I2= 2.74 mA R2= 1.50 kW V2= 4.11 V P2= 11.3 mW

I3= 2.74 mA R3= 2.20 kW V3= 6.03 V P3= 16.5 mW

IT= 2.74 mA RT= 4.38 kW VS= 12 V PT= 32.9 mW

 Series Circuits: Voltage divider

• A circuit consisting of a series string of resistors

connected to a voltage source acts as a voltage divider

Apply KVL −𝑉 𝑠 +𝑉 1 +𝑉 2=0

𝑉 𝑠 =𝑉 1+𝑉 2

• The total voltage drop around a single closed path divides among the series
resistors in amounts directly proportional to the resistance values

𝑉 𝑠 =𝐼 𝑅1 + 𝐼 𝑅 2
 Series Circuits: Voltage divider formula

• Let represent the voltage drop across any one of

the resistors with resistance as

Apply Ohm Law

𝑉 𝑥 =𝐼𝑅 𝑥 𝑎

Current in series circuit

𝑉𝑠
𝐼=
𝑅𝑇
Equation will become
𝑉 𝑥=
𝑉𝑠
𝑅
𝑅𝑇 𝑥
𝑉 𝑥=
{ }
𝑅𝑥
𝑅𝑇
𝑉
𝑠

The voltage drop across any resistor or combination of resistors in a series circuit is equal to the
ratio of that resistance value to the total resistance, multiplied by the source voltage.
 Series Circuits: Voltage divider: Example

• Determine (the voltage across ) and (the voltage

across )

Voltage Divider formula 𝑉 𝑥=

{ }
𝑅𝑥
𝑅𝑇
𝑉
𝑠

Substitute 𝑉 1=
{ }
𝑅1
𝑅𝑇
𝑉
𝑠

Total resistance 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1+ 𝑅2=156 Ω

Voltage Voltage

by applying KVL

𝑉 𝑠 =𝑉 1+𝑉 2 𝑉 2=𝑉 𝑠 −𝑉 1 ⇒ 10 −6.41=𝟑 .𝟓𝟗 𝑽

 Series Circuits: Voltage divider: Example

What is the voltage across R2?

The total resistance is 25 kW.

Applying the voltage divider formula:

Notice that 40% of the source voltage is

across R2, which represents 40% of the
total resistance.
 Series Circuits: Voltage divider: Example
Voltage between two points

𝑉 𝑥=
{ }
𝑅𝑥
𝑅𝑇
𝑉
𝑠

A Potentiometer as an Adjustable Voltage Divider

 Different methods: voltage

Voltage across each resistor (Ohm Law)

Voltage across each resistor by applying (Voltage division rule)

𝑉 1=
{ }
𝑅1
𝑅𝑇
𝑉 =1 𝑉
𝑠

Voltage across
each resistor)
𝑉 2=
{ }𝑅2
𝑅𝑇
𝑉 =3.3 𝑉
𝑠

𝑉 3=
{ }𝑅3
𝑅𝑇
𝑉 =4.7 𝑉
𝑠
 Series Circuits: Power
• The power dissipated by each individual resistor in a series circuit contributes to the
total power in the circuit.

• The total amount of power in a series resistive circuit is equal to the sum of the
powers in each resistor in series.

• Power formulas are applicable to series circuits. Since there is the same current
through each resistor in series,

𝑉 𝑠2
𝑃 𝑇 =𝑽 𝒔 𝐼 2
𝑃 𝑇 =𝐼 𝑹 𝑻 𝑃𝑇=
𝑹𝑻
 Series Circuits: POWER

Power in Series Circuits

• Use the voltage divider rule to find V1 and V2. Then find
the power in R1 and R2 and PT.

Applying the voltage divider rule: The power dissipated by each resistor is:

} PT = 0.5 W
 Series Circuits: Power
Determine if the indicated power rating (0.5 W) of each
resistor is sufficient to handle the actual power when the
switch is closed. If a rating is not adequate, specify the
required minimum rating.

Calculate total resistance:

𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1+ 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅 4 =𝟕 .𝟗𝟏 𝑲 𝜴

𝑉 𝑠 120
Current in series circuit: 𝐼= =
3
×10 =15 𝑚𝐴
𝑅𝑇 7.91

Power of each resistor

𝑃 1=( 𝐼 ¿ ¿ ❑)2 𝑅=(15 ×10 −3 )2 ×1.0 × 103 =𝟐𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝑾 ¿
𝑃 2=( 𝐼 ¿ ¿ ❑)2 𝑅=(15 ×10 −3 )2 × 2.7 ×10 3=𝟔𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝑾 ¿
𝑃 3=( 𝐼 ¿ ¿❑)2 𝑅=(15 × 10−3 )2 × 0.9 ×10 3=𝟐𝟎𝟓 𝒎𝑾 ¿ and Do not have a rating sufficient to
handle the actual power,
𝑃 4 =( 𝐼 ¿ ¿❑)2 𝑅=(15 ×10− 3)2 ×3.3 × 103 =𝟕𝟒𝟑 𝒎𝑾 ¿ Use 1 W power rating.
 Series Circuits: Circuit Ground

• The term “ground” typically means a

common or reference point in the circuit.

• Voltages that are given with respect to ground are shown with a
single subscript. For example, VA means the voltage at point A with
respect to ground. VB means the voltage at point B with respect to
ground. VAB means the voltage between points A and B.

What are VA, VB, and VAB for the circuit shown?

VA = 12 V VB = 8 V VAB = 4 V
 Key Terms
Circuit ground A method of grounding whereby the metal chassis that houses the
assembly or a large conductive area on a printed circuit board is
used as a common or reference point; also called chassis ground.

Kirchhoff’s A law stating that (1) the sum of the voltage drops around a closed
voltage law loop equals the source voltage in that loop or (2) the algebraic
sum of all of the voltages (drops and source) is zero.

Open A circuit condition in which the current path is broken.

 Key Terms

Series In an electric circuit, a relationship of components in which the

components are connected such that they provide a single path
between two points.

A circuit condition in which there is zero or an abnormally low

Short
resistance between two points; usually an inadvertent condition.

Voltage divider A circuit consisting of series resistors across which one or more
output voltages are taken.
BOOK: Thomas L. Floyd - Principles of Electric Circuits_ Conventional Current
Version-Pearson Education Limited (2013)

Chapter 5:
Section 1-9

42