FRICTION

Introduction
• In preceding chapters, it was assumed that surfaces in contact were either
frictionless (surfaces could move freely with respect to each other) or rough
(tangential forces prevent relative motion between surfaces).

• Actually, no perfectly frictionless surface exists. For two surfaces in contact,

tangential forces, called friction forces, will develop if one attempts to move one
relative to the other.

• However, the friction forces are limited in magnitude and will not prevent
motion if sufficiently large forces are applied.

• The distinction between frictionless and rough is, therefore, a matter of degree.

• There are two types of friction: dry or Coulomb friction and fluid friction. Fluid
friction applies to lubricated mechanisms. The present discussion is limited to
dry friction between nonlubricated surfaces.
The Laws of Dry Friction. Coefficients of
Friction
• Block of weight W placed on horizontal
surface. Forces acting on block are its weight
and reaction of surface N.

• Small horizontal force P applied to block. For

block to remain stationary, in equilibrium, a
horizontal component F of the surface reaction
is required. F is a static-friction force.

• As P increases, the static-friction force F

increases as well until it reaches a maximum
value Fm.
Fm   s N

• Further increase in P causes the block to begin

to move as F drops to a smaller kinetic-friction
force Fk.
Fk   k N
Theory of Dry Friction
• F is a static frictional force if equilibrium is maintained
• F is a limiting static frictional force when it reaches a
maximum value needed to maintain equilibrium
• F is termed a kinetic frictional force when sliding
occurs at the contacting surface
The Laws of Dry Friction. Coefficients of
Friction
• Maximum static-friction force:
Fm   s N

• Kinetic-friction force:
Fk   k N
 k  0.75 s

• Maximum static-friction force and kinetic-

friction force are:
- proportional to normal force
- dependent on type and condition of
contact surfaces
- independent of contact area
The Laws of Dry Friction. Coefficients of
Friction
• Four situations can occur when a rigid body is in contact with
a horizontal surface:

• No friction, • No motion, • Motion impending, • Motion,

(Px = 0) (Px < Fm) (Px = Fm) (Px > Fm)
Angles of Friction
• It is sometimes convenient to replace normal force N and friction force F by
their resultant R:

• No friction • No motion • Motion impending • Motion

Fm  s N Fk  k N
tan  s   tan  k  
N N N N
tan  s   s tan  k   k
Angles of Friction
• Consider block of weight W resting on board with variable inclination angle 

• No • No motion • Motion • Motion

friction impending
Characteristics of Dry Friction

Characteristics of Dry Friction

• The frictional force acts tangent to the contacting
surfaces
• The max static frictional force Fs is independent of the
area of contact
• The max static frictional force is greater than kinetic
frictional force
• When slipping, the max static frictional force is
proportional to the normal force and kinetic frictional
force is proportional to the normal force
Problems Involving Dry Friction

• All applied forces known • All applied forces known

• Coefficient of static
• Coefficient of static friction • Motion is impending friction is known
is known
• Determine value of • Motion is impending
• Determine whether body coefficient of static friction.
will remain at rest or slide • Determine magnitude or
direction of one of the
applied forces
Sample Problem 1
SOLUTION:
• Determine values of friction force
and normal reaction force from plane
required to maintain equilibrium.

• Calculate maximum friction force

and compare with friction force
required for equilibrium. If it is
greater, block will not slide.

• If maximum friction force is less

than friction force required for
A 450N force acts as shown on a 1350 N equilibrium, block will slide.
block placed on an inclined plane. The Calculate kinetic-friction force.
coefficients of friction between the block
and plane are s = 0.25 and k = 0.20.
Determine whether the block is in
equilibrium and find the value of the
friction force.
SOLUTION:
• Determine values of friction force and normal
reaction force from plane required to maintain
equilibrium.

 Fx  0 : 450N - 53 1350N   F  0
F  360 N

 Fy  0 : N - 54 1350 N   0
N  1080 N

• Calculate maximum friction force and compare

with friction force required for equilibrium. If it is
greater, block will not slide.

Fm   s N Fm  0.25 1080 N   270 N

The block will slide down the plane.

• If maximum friction force is less than friction force required for equilibrium,
block will slide. Calculate kinetic-friction force.

Factual  Fk   k N
 0.20 1080 N  Factual  216 N
Example 2

The uniform crate has a mass of 20kg. If a force P = 80N

is applied on to the crate, determine if it remains in
equilibrium. The coefficient of static friction is μ = 0.3.
Solution

Resultant normal force NC act a distance x from the

crate’s center line in order to counteract the tipping effect
caused by P.

3 unknowns to be determined by 3 equations of

equilibrium.
Solution

   Fx  0;
80 cos 30 N  F  0
   Fy  0;
 80 sin 30 N  N C  196.2 N  0
 M O  0;
80 sin 30 N (0.4m)  80 cos 30 N (0.2m)  N C ( x)  0
Solving
F  69.3 N , N C  236 N x  0.00908m  9.08mm
Solution

Since x is negative, the resultant force acts (slightly) to

the left of the crate’s center line.

No tipping will occur since x ≤ 0.4m

Max frictional force which can be developed at the

surface of contact
Fmax = μsNC = 0.3(236N) = 70.8N

Since F = 69.3N < 70.8N, the crate will not slip though it
is close to doing so.
Wedges

• A simple machine used to transform an applied force

into much larger forces, directed at approximately right
angles to the applied force
• Used to give small displacements or adjustments to
heavy load
• Consider the wedge used to lift a block of weight W by
applying a force P to the wedge
Wedges

• FBD of the block and the wedge

• Exclude the weight of the wedge since it is small compared

to weight of the block
Example

The uniform stone has a mass of 500kg and is held in

place in the horizontal position using a wedge at B. if the
coefficient of static friction μs = 0.3, at the surfaces of
contact, determine the minimum force P needed to
remove the wedge. Is the wedge self-locking? Assume
that the stone does not slip at A.
Solution

Minimum force P requires F = μs NA at the surfaces of

contact with the wedge.
FBD of the stone and the wedge as below.
On the wedge, friction force opposes the motion and on
the stone at A, FA ≤ μsNA, slipping does not occur.
Solution

5 unknowns, 3 equilibrium equations for the stone and 2

for the wedge.
 M A  0;
 4905N (0.5m)  ( N B cos 7  N )(1m)  (0.3 N B sin 7  N )(1m)  0
N B  2383.1N
   Fx  0;
2383.1sin 7   0.3(2383.1 cos 7  )  P  0.3 N C  0
   Fy  0;
N C  2383.1 cos 7  N  0.3(2383.1sin 7  )  0
N C  2452.5 N
P  1154.9 N  1.15kN
Solution

Since P is positive, the wedge must be pulled out.

If P is zero, the wedge would remain in place (self-

locking) and the frictional forces developed at B and C
would satisfy
FB < μsNB
FC < μsNC
Flexible belts
Frictional Forces on Flat Belts

• It is necessary to determine the frictional forces

developed between the contacting surfaces
• Consider the flat belt which passes over a fixed curved
surface
• Obviously T2 > T1
• Consider FBD of the belt
segment in contact with the surface
• N and F vary both in
magnitude and direction
 Frictional Forces on Flat Belts

• Consider FBD of an element having a length ds

• Assuming either impending motion or motion of the
belt, the magnitude of the frictional force
dF = μ dN
• Applying equilibrium equations

∑ Fx = 0;
d d
T cos + dN (T + dT ) cos =0
2 2
∑ Fy = 0;
d d
dN (T + dT ) sin T sin =0
2 2
Frictional Forces on Flat Belts

• We have
dN  dT
dN  Td
dT
 d
T

T  T1 ,  0, T  T2 ,  
T2 dT 
T1 T   0 d
T
In 2  
T1
T2  T1e 
Example

The maximum tension that can be developed In the cord

is 500N. If the pulley at A is free to rotate and the
coefficient of static friction at fixed drums B and C is μs =
0.25, determine the largest mass of cylinder that can be
lifted by the cord. Assume that the force F applied at the
end of the cord is directed vertically downward.
Example

Weight of W = mg causes the cord to move CCW over

the drums at B and C.
Max tension T2 in the cord occur at D where T2 = 500N
For section of the cord passing over the drum at B
180° = π rad, angle of contact between drum and cord
β = (135°/180°)π = 3/4π rad
T2  T1e  s  ;
500 N  T1e 0.253 / 4  
500 N 500 N
T1    277.4 N
e 0.253 / 4   1.80
Example

For section of the cord passing over the drum at C

W < 277.4N

T2  T1e  s  ;
277.4  We 0.253 / 4  
W  153.9 N

W 153.9 N
m  2
 15.7 kg
g 9.81m / s
Frictional Forces on Screws

• Screws used as fasteners

• Sometimes used to transmit power or motion from one
part of the machine to another
• A square-ended screw is commonly used for the latter
purpose, especially when large forces are applied
along its axis
• A screw is thought as an inclined plane or wedge
wrapped around a cylinder
Square-Threaded Screws
• Square-threaded screws frequently used in jacks, presses, etc.
Analysis similar to block on inclined plane. Recall friction
force does not depend on area of contact.

• Thread of base has been “unwrapped” and shown as straight

line. Slope is 2r horizontally and lead L vertically.

• Moment of force Q is equal to moment of force P. Q  Pa r

• Impending motion • s   , Self-locking, • s   , Non-locking,

upwards. Solve for solve for Q to lower load. solve for Q to hold load.
Q.
Frictional Forces on Collar Bearings,
Pivot Bearings and Disks
• Pivot and collar bearings are used to support axial load
on a rotating shaft
• Laws of dry friction is applied to determine the moment
M needed to turn the shaft when it supports an axial
force P
Frictional Forces on Collar Bearings,
Pivot Bearings and Disks

Frictional Analysis
• The collar bearing on the shaft is subjected to an axial
force P and has a total contact area π(R22 – R12)
• Normal pressure p is considered to be uniformly
distributed over this area – a reasonable assumption
provided the bearing is new and evenly distributed
• Since ∑Fz = 0,
p measured as a force per unit area
p = P/π(R22 – R12)
Example

The uniform bar has a total mass m. if it is assumed that

the normal pressure acting at the contracting surface
varies linearly along the length of the bar, determine the
couple moment M required to rotate the bar. Assume that
the bar’s width a is negligible in comparison to its length l.
the coefficient of static friction is equal to μs.
Solution

FBD of the bar is as shown.

Bar has a total weight of W = mg.
Intensity wo of the distributed lead at the center (x = 0) is
determined from vertical force equilibrium.

   Fz  0;
1   
 mg  2    wo   0
2  2  
2mg
wo 

Solution

Since w = 0 at x = l/2, for distributed load function,

 2 x  2mg  2 x 
w  wo 1    1  
    
For magnitude of normal force acting on a segment of
area having length dx,
2mg  2 x 
dN  wdx  1  dx
  
Solution

For magnitude of the frictional force acting on the same

element of area,
2  s mg  2 x 
dF   s dN  1  dx
  
For moment created by this force about z axis,
2  s mg  2x 
dM  xdF  x1  dx
  
Summation of moments by integration,
/ 2 2 s mg  2x 
 M z  0; M  2 x1  dx  0
0   
/ 2
4  s mg  x 2 2 x 3   mg
M     s
  2 3  0 6
Frictional Forces on Journal Bearings

• When a shaft or axle is subjected to lateral loads, a

journal bearing is used for support
• Well-lubricated journal bearings are subjected to the
laws of fluid mechanisms
• When the bearing is not lubricated, analysis of the
frictional resistance can be based on the laws of dry
friction
• If the lateral load is P, the bearing
reactive force R acting at A is
equal and opposite to P
Frictional Forces on Journal Bearings

• Moment needed to maintain constant rotation of the

shaft can be found by the summation of moments
about the z axis of the shaft,
 M z  0;
M  ( R sin k )r  0
M  Rr sin k

• If the bearing is partially lubricated, μk is small,

μk = tanΦk ≈ sinΦk ≈ Φk
• Frictional resistance
M ≈ Rrμk
Example

The 100mm diameter pulley fits loosely on a 10mm

diameter shaft for which the coefficient of static friction is
μs = 0.4. Determine the minimum tension T in the belt
needed to (a) raise the 100kg block and (b) lower the
block. Assume that no slipping occurs between the belt
and the pulley and neglect the weight of the pulley.
Example

Part (a)
FBD of the pulley is shown.
As tension T is increased, the pulley will roll around the
shaft to point before motion P2 impends.
Friction circle’s radius, rf = r sinΦs.
Using the simplification,
sin s  (tan s  s )
rf  r s  (5mm)(0.4)  2mm

 M P2  0;981N (52mm)  T (48mm)  0

T  1063N  1.06kN and s  tan 1 0.4  20.8
Example

Part (a)
For radius of friction circle,
rf  r sin s  5 sin 21.8  1.86mm
Therefore,
 M P2  0;
981N (50mm  1.86mm)  T (50mm  1.86mm)  0
T  1057 N  1.06kN
Example

Part (b)
When the block is lowered, the resultant force R acting on
the shaft passes through the point P3.

Summing moments about this point,

 M P3  0;
981N ( 48mm)  T (52mm)  0
T  906 N
Rolling Resistance

• A rigid cylinder of weight W rolls at constant velocity

along a rigid surface, the normal force is at tangent
point of contact
• Hard material cylinder will compresses the soft surface
underneath it
Rolling Resistance

• We consider the resultant of the entire normal pressure

acting on the cylinder
N = Nd + Nr

• To keep the cylinder in equilibrium, rolling at constant

rate, N must be concurrent with the driving force P and
the weight W
• Summation of moment about A,
Wa = P (r cosθ)
Wa ≈ Pr
P ≈ (Wa)/r
Example

A 10kg steel wheel has a radius of 100mm and rest on an

inclined plans made of wood. If θ is increased so that the
wheel begins to roll down the incline with constant
velocity when θ = 1.2°, determine the coefficient of rolling
resistance.
Solution

FBD of the wheel is as shown.

Wheel has impending motion.
Normal reaction N acts at point A defined by dimension a.
Summing moments about point A,
 M A  0;
9.81cos 1.2 N (a )  9.81sin 1.2 N (100mm)  0
Solving
a  2.09mm
QUIZ

1. A friction force always acts _____ to the contact

surface.
A) Normal B) At 45°
C) Parallel D) At the angle of static friction

2. If a block is stationary, then the friction force acting on

it is ________ .
A)  s N B) = s N
C)  s N D) = k N
QUIZ

3. A 100 lb box with a wide base is pulled by a force P

and s = 0.4. Which force orientation requires the least
force to begin sliding? P(A)
A) P(A) B) P(B) 100 lb P(B)
P(C)
C) P(C) D) Not determined

4. A ladder is positioned as shown. Please indicate the

direction of the friction force on the ladder at B.
A)  B)  B

C) D) A
QUIZ

5. A wedge allows a ______ force P to lift a _________

weight W.
A) (large, large) B) (small, small)
C) (small, large) D) (large, small)

6. Considering friction forces and the indicated motion of

the belt, how are belt tensions T1 and T2 related?
A) T1 > T2 B) T1 = T2
C) T1 < T2 D) T1 = T2 e
QUIZ

7. When determining the force P needed to lift the block

of weight W, it is easier to draw a FBD of ______ first.
A) The wedge B) The block
C) The horizontal ground D) The vertical wall

8. In the analysis of frictional forces on a flat belt, T2 = T1

e  . In this equation,  equals ______ .
A) Angle of contact in deg B) Angle of contact in rad
C) Coefficient of static friction D) Coefficient of kinetic
friction