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    Lec 2

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    This document discusses analog and digital signals at the physical layer of computer networks. It covers topics such as: - Analog signals are continuous while digital signals are discrete. Examples include analog clocks vs digital clocks. - Signals can be periodic or non-periodic. Periodic signals have a repeating pattern while non-periodic signals do not. - Characteristics of analog signals include amplitude, frequency, phase, and wavelength. Digital signals are represented by discrete levels and a bit rate. - Composite signals consist of multiple simple signals combined. They can be decomposed into their component frequencies using Fourier analysis. - Transmission impairments like attenuation cause the received signal to differ from the original transmitted signal. A

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    Lec 2

    Uploaded by

    Abdullah
    16 views56 pages
    This document discusses analog and digital signals at the physical layer of computer networks. It covers topics such as: - Analog signals are continuous while digital signals are discrete. Examples include analog clocks vs digital clocks. - Signals can be periodic or non-periodic. Periodic signals have a repeating pattern while non-periodic signals do not. - Characteristics of analog signals include amplitude, frequency, phase, and wavelength. Digital signals are represented by discrete levels and a bit rate. - Composite signals consist of multiple simple signals combined. They can be decomposed into their component frequencies using Fourier analysis. - Transmission impairments like attenuation cause the received signal to differ from the original transmitted signal. A

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    lec 2 (1)

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    This document discusses analog and digital signals at the physical layer of computer networks. It covers topics such as: - Analog signals are continuous while digital signals are discrete. Examples include analog clocks vs digital clocks. - Signals can be periodic or non-periodic. Periodic signals have a repeating pattern while non-periodic signals do not. - Characteristics of analog signals include amplitude, frequency, phase, and wavelength. Digital signals are represented by discrete levels and a bit rate. - Composite signals consist of multiple simple signals combined. They can be decomposed into their component frequencies using Fourier analysis. - Transmission impairments like attenuation cause the received signal to differ from the original transmitted signal. A

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
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    Download as pptx, pdf, or txt
    16 views56 pages

    Lec 2

    Uploaded by

    Abdullah
    This document discusses analog and digital signals at the physical layer of computer networks. It covers topics such as: - Analog signals are continuous while digital signals are discrete. Examples include analog clocks vs digital clocks. - Signals can be periodic or non-periodic. Periodic signals have a repeating pattern while non-periodic signals do not. - Characteristics of analog signals include amplitude, frequency, phase, and wavelength. Digital signals are represented by discrete levels and a bit rate. - Composite signals consist of multiple simple signals combined. They can be decomposed into their component frequencies using Fourier analysis. - Transmission impairments like attenuation cause the received signal to differ from the original transmitted signal. A

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    of 56

    Lecture No.

    02

    Computer Networks
    Communication at Physical Layer
    Analog & Digital Data

    • Data  Analog or Digital

    • Analog Data  Continuous

    • Digital Data  Discrete

    • Examples: Analog Clock vs. Digital Clock

    • Human voice vs. Data in Computer


    Analog & Digital Signals
    • Signals represent Data

    • Signals  Analog or Digital

    • Analog Signal  Infinite Levels of Intensity


    over time

    • Digital Signal  Limited number of


    defined values
    Analog & Digital Signals
    Periodic & Non-periodic Signals
    • Analog/Digital Signal  Periodic or Non-periodic

    • Periodic Signal  Pattern


    • A periodic signal is one that repeats the sequence of values exactly after a fixed length of time, known as the
    period.

    • Period and Cycle

    • Non-Periodic  No Pattern

    • Periodic ANALOG Signals and Non-periodic


    DIGITAL Signals
    Periodic Analog Signals
    • Periodic Analog Signals  Simple or Composite

    • Simple Periodic Analog signal Sine wave

    • Composite Periodic Analog signal Composed


    of multiple sine waves
    Sine Wave – Peak Amplitude
    Sine Wave –Frequency

    • Period (T)  Amount of time required to complete 1


    cycle

    • Frequency (f)  No. of Periods in 1 sec

    • f = 1/T or T = 1/f
    Sine Wave –Frequency
    Sine Wave –Frequency
    Example
    The power we use at home
    has a frequency of 60 Hz.
    The period of this sine
    wave can be determined as
    follows:
    Example
    The period of a signal
    is 100 ms. What is its
    frequency in
    kilohertz?.
    Phase (or Phase Shift)

    • Position of waveform relative to time 0

    • Phase describes the amount of shift of the wave

    • Indicates start of the first cycle

    • 360 ° = 2 π radians


    • 1 ° = 2 π radians/360
    Phase
    Example

    A sine wave is offset 1/6


    cycle with respect to time
    0. What is its phase in
    degrees and radians?
    Wavelength
    Wavelength is another characteristic of a signal
    traveling through a transmission medium.

    Wavelength binds the period or the frequency of a


    simple sine wave to the propagation speed of the
    medium
    Time & Frequency Domains
    A sine wave is comprehensively defined by its
    amplitude, frequency, and phase.

    We have been showing a sine wave by using what is


    called a time domain plot.

    The time-domain plot shows changes in signal


    amplitude with respect to time (it is an amplitude-
    versus-time plot).
    Time & Frequency Domains
    Example
    The frequency domain is more compact and useful
    when we are dealing with more than one sine wave.

    For example, Figure in next slide shows three sine


    waves, each with different amplitude and frequency.

    All can be represented by three spikes in the


    frequency domain.
    Time & Frequency Domains
    Composite Signals
    So far, we have focused on simple sine waves.

    Simple sine waves have many applications in


    daily life

    We can send a single sine wave to carry


    electric energy from one place to another

    For example, the power company sends a


    single sine wave with a frequency of 60 Hz to
    distribute electric energy to houses and
    businesses.
    Composite Signals

    • Single Sine Wave can only carry limited information

    • Composite Signal is made up of multiple simple sine


    waves

    • Can be periodic or non-periodic


    A Composite Periodic Signal
    Decomposition of Composite Periodic Signal
    Amplitude

    •••
    Time

    Amplitude

    f 3f 9f Frequency

    b. Frequency-domain decomposition of the composite signal


    Bandwidth
    • An important characteristic that measures
    Network Performance

    • Range of frequencies contained in a


    Composite Signal

    • The bandwidth is normally a difference


    between two frequencies (the highest and the
    lowest)

    • Bandwidth can be used in two different


    contexts with two different measuring values:
    • Bandwidth in Hertz
    • Bandwidth in bits per second
    Bandwidth

    Bandwidth

    Bandwidth in
    Bandwidth in
    Hertz
    bps
    Range of frequencies No. of bits a channel, link
    in a composite signal or network can transmit
    Bandwidth of a composite signal
    Example
    If a periodic signal is
    decomposed into five sine
    waves with frequencies of
    100, 300, 500, 700, and 900
    Hz, what is its bandwidth?
    Draw the spectrum,
    assuming all components
    have a maximum amplitude
    of 10 V.
    Digital Signals
    In addition to being represented by an analog
    signal, information can also be represented by
    a digital signal.

    For example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive


    voltage and a 0 as zero voltage. A digital signal
    can have more than two levels.
    Digital Signals

    In general, if a signal has L


    levels, each level needs log2
    L bits. So, we can send log2
    2 = 1 bit per level

    log2 4 = 2 bits
    Example
    A digital signal has eight levels. How many
    bits are needed per level?

    We calculate the number of bits from the


    following formula. Each signal level is
    represented by 3 bits.
    Example
    A digital signal has nine levels. How many bits are
    needed per level?

    We calculate the number of bits by using the


    formula.

    Each signal level is represented by 3.17 bits.

    However, this answer is not realistic.

    The number of bits sent per level needs to be an


    integer as well as a power of 2.

    For this example, 4 bits can represent one level.


    Bit Rate

    • Number of bits sent in 1 second

    • Bit Rate is expressed in bits per second (bps)

    • Most digital signals are non-periodic, and thus


    period and frequency are not appropriate
    characteristics
    Bit Rate
    Example
    Assume we need to
    download text
    documents at the
    rate of 100 pages
    per second. What is
    the required bit
    rate of the
    channel?

    Solution
    A page is an average of 24 lines with 80
    characters in each line. If we assume that one
    character requires
    Example
    A digitized voice
    channel is made by
    digitizing a 4-kHz
    bandwidth analog
    voice signal. We
    need to sample the
    signal at twice the
    highest frequency
    (two samples per
    hertz). We assume
    that each sample
    requires 8 bits.
    What is the
    required bit rate?
    Example
    What is the bit rate for high-
    definition TV (HDTV)?
    Solution
    HDTV uses digital signals to
    broadcast high quality video
    signals. The HDTV screen is
    normally a ratio of 16 : 9 (in
    contrast to 4 : 3 for regular
    TV), which means the
    screen is wider. There are
    1920 by 1080 pixels per
    screen, and the screen is
    renewed 30 times per
    second.
    Solution
    Twenty-four bits
    represents one
    color pixel. We can
    calculate the bit
    rate as

    The TV stations
    reduce this rate to
    20 to 40 Mbps
    through
    compression.
    Bit Length
    We discussed the concept of
    the wavelength for an analog
    signal: the distance one cycle
    occupies on the transmission
    medium. We can define
    something similar for a
    digital signal: the bit length.
    The bit length is the distance
    one bit occupies on the
    transmission medium.
    Digital Signal as Composite Analog Signal
    •  A vertical line in the time domain
    means a frequency of infinity
    (sudden change in time); a
    horizontal line in the time domain
    means a frequency of zero (no
    change in time). Going from a
    frequency of zero to a frequency of
    infinity (and vice versa) implies all
    frequencies in between are part of
    the domain
    Transmission of Digital Signals
    • Digital signal, periodic or non-periodic,
    is a composite analog signal with
    frequencies between zero and infinity
    (Infinite Bandwidth)

    • Two approaches for transmission:


     Baseband Transmission
     Broadband Transmission
    Baseband Transmission

    Low Pass Channel

    Sending a Digital Signal without changing it to an Analog Signal


    Baseband Transmission
    Broadband Transmission (Modulation)
    • Changing the Digital signal to an Analog
    signal for transmission

    • Modulation allows us to use a bandpass


    channel—a channel with a bandwidth that
    does not start from zero

    • More available than a low-pass channel


    Broadband Transmission (Modulation)
    Transmission Impairments
    • Transmission media are not perfect

    • Cause Signal impairments

    • Signal sent is not the same as the signal


    received

    • What is sent is not what is received


    Causes of Transmission Impairment
    Transmission Impairment
    Signals travel through transmission media,
    which are not perfect. The imperfection
    causes signal impairment. This means that the
    signal at the beginning of the medium is not
    the same as the signal at the end of the
    medium.
    Attenuation
    Attenuation means a loss of energy. When a
    signal, simple or composite, travels through a
    medium, it loses some of its energy in
    overcoming the resistance of the medium. That
    is why a wire carrying electric signals gets
    warm, if not hot, after a while. Some of the
    electrical energy in the signal is converted to
    heat.
    To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used
    to amplify the signal
    Attenuation and amplification
    Attenuation and Amplification - Decibel

    • Unit of Signal strength is


    Decibel or dB

    • Decibel (dB) measures the


    relative strengths of two
    signals or one signal at two
    different points

    • Decibel is negative if a signal


    is attenuated and positive if
    signal is amplified
    Example
    Suppose a signal travels
    through a transmission
    medium and its power is
    reduced to one half. This
    means that P2 = 0.5 P1. In
    this case, the attenuation
    (loss of power) can be
    calculated as

    A loss of 3 dB (−3 dB) is


    equivalent to losing one-
    half the power.
    Example
    A signal travels
    through an
    amplifier, and its
    power is increased
    10 times. This
    means that P2 =
    10P1. In this case,
    the amplification
    (gain of power) can
    be calculated as
    Distortion
    • Distortion means that the
    signal changes its form or
    shape.
    • Distortion can occur in a
    composite signal made of
    different frequencies.
    • Each signal component has
    its own propagation speed
    (see the next section)
    through a medium and,
    therefore, its own delay in
    arriving at the final
    destination.
    Distortion
    Differences in delay
    may create a
    difference in phase
    if the delay is not
    exactly the same as
    the period
    duration.

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