ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY, SAWLA CAMPUS

College of Commerce and Business Administration

Department of Cooperative Accounting and

Auditing

Research Method in Cooperatives

 CHAPTER ONE:
CONCEPTS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

 Research is an activity that involves finding out, in a more or

less systematic way, things you did not know.
 A more academic interpretation is that research involves
finding out about things that no-one else knew either.
 Research Methods are the tools and techniques for doing
research.
 They represent the tools of the trade, and provide you with
ways:
to collect,
sort and
analyze information so that you can come to some
conclusions.
Conti--
1.2 Purpose of Studying Research
To Review or synthesize existing knowledge;
To Investigate existing situations or problems;
To Provide solutions to problems;
To Explore and analyze more general issues;
To Construct or create new procedures or systems;
To Explain new phenomenon;
To Generate new knowledge; and
To combine of any of the above
1.1.3 Research Approach
 Research can be approached in the following ways:
Quantitative/Qualitative
Applied/Basic
Deductive/Inductive
1. Quantitative/Qualitative Research
a) Quantitative Research:
 collect and analyze numerical data;
 concentrates on measuring the scale, range, frequency etc. of
phenomena.
 harder to design initially,
 is usually highly detailed and structured and results can be easily
collated and presented statistically.
b) Qualitative Research:
 is more subjective in nature than quantitative research
 involves examining and reflecting on the less tangible aspects of a
research subject,
o e.g. values, attitudes, perceptions.
 Although this type of research can be easier to start, it can be often
difficult to interpret and present the findings;
 the findings can also be challenged more easily.
2. Basic/Applied Research
a) Basic Research: the primary aim of Basic Research is to improve
knowledge generally, without any particular applied purpose in
mind at the outset.
b) Applied Research is designed from the start to apply its findings
to a particular situation.
 Students at the school of Management are expected to engage
with an applied research or problem solving research project.
3. Deductive/Inductive Research
a. Deductive research:
 moves from general ideas/theories to specific particular &
situations:
 the particular is deduced from the general, e.g. broad theories.
b. Inductive research
 moves from particular situations to make or infer broad general
ideas/theories.
1.1.4 Research Methodology
 The methodology mainly categorized as Positivistic and Phenomenological.
 However, research often contains both approaches, e.g. a survey that also
contains qualitative work from participant observation.
a) Positivistic Methodology includes:-
 Surveys
 Experimental Studies
 Longitudinal Studies
 Cross-sectional Studies
b) Phenomenological Methodology includes:-
 Case Studies
 Action Research
 Ethnography (participant observation)
 Participative Enquiry
 Feminist Perspectives
 Grounded Theory
1.2 Types of Research
Patton (1990) classified four types of research based on different
purposes:
1. Basic Research:
 The purpose of this research is to understand and explain, i.e. the research
is interested in formulating and testing theoretical construct and
propositions that ideally generalize across time and space.
 This research is more descriptive in nature exploring what, why and how
questions.
2. Applied Research:
 The purpose of this research is to help people understand the nature of
human problems so that human beings can more effectively control their
environment.
 In other words, this type of research pursues potential solutions to human
and societal problems.
 This research is more prescriptive in nature, focusing on how questions.
Conti---
3. Evaluation Research (summative and formative):
 Evaluation research studies the processes and outcomes aimed at
attempted solution.
 The purpose of formative research is to improve human
intervention within specific conditions, such as activities, time,
and groups of people;
 The purpose of summative evaluation is to judge the effectiveness
of a program, policy, or product.
4. Action Research:
 aims at solving specific problems within a program, organization,
or community
 design and data collection in action research tends to be more
informal, and the people in the situation are directly involved in
gathering information and studying themselves.
According to Bradford University School of Management the
type of research are divided in to four.
 These are exploratory, descriptive, analytical, and predictive.
Exploratory Descriptive Analytical Predictive
 undertaken when  can be used to  often extends the  The aim of
few or no previous identify and Descriptive Predictive research
studies exist. classify the approach to suggest is to speculate
 The aim is to look elements or or explain why or intelligently on
for patterns, characteristics of how something is future possibilities,
hypotheses or ideas the subject, e.g. happening, e.g. based on close
that can be tested number of days lost underlying causes analysis of
and will form the because of of industrial action. available evidence
basis for further industrial action.   of cause and effect,
research. e.g. predicting
when and where
future industrial
action might take
place
Conti--
Exploratory Descriptive Analytical Predictive

Typical research Quantitative An important

techniques would techniques are feature of this
include case studies, most often used to type of research
observation and collect, analyze is in locating and
reviews of previous and summarize identifying the
related studies and data. different factors
data. (or variables)
involved.
 1.3 The process of Research
 The main stages of research can be summarized, as below.
1. Establish a general field of interest; discuss with
supervisor/tutor
2. Undertake preliminary & background reading on the subject
to be researched
3. Narrow your ideas to a workable topic or research proposal
and give it a title. Decide on the most appropriate methods
4. Preparation of information gathering ‘tools’, e.g.
questionnaires, interview sheets etc (if relevant) & then
information gathering stage.
5. Collect, analyze and interpret the research data.
6. Write first draft of research project report.
7. Revision and re-write the research Project; then submit it.
 CHAPTER TWO –
DEFINING RESEARCH PROBLEM AND HYPOTHESIS
FORMULATION
2.1. What is Research Problem?
 What information you collect and how you analyze it depends on the nature of the
research problem,

 Hence the need for total clarity in defining the problem and limiting its scope in
order to enable a practical research project with defined outcomes to be devised.

 There is no shortage of problems throughout the world, but for a problem to be

researchable, it needs to have several crucial features.
 It must be:
 stated clearly and concisely;
 significant i.e. not trivial or a repeat of previous work;
 delineated, in order to limit its scope to practical investigation;
 Possible to obtain the information required to explore the problem;
 Possible to draw conclusions related to the problem, as the point of research is to find some
answers.
Conti--
 A research problem can be based on a question, an unresolved
controversy, a gap in knowledge or an unrequited need within
the chosen subject.
 Question or Questions
 Probably the simplest way to set up a research problem is
to ask a question.
 The nice thing about questions is that they demand answers
– a good incentive to do some research!
 Here is an example of a research problem expressed as a
main question:
 Main question: Are school exam results a true test of a
student’s intelligence?
 Questions can then be used to break the main problem
down into questions to the define sub-problems.
The different things you can do to split up the main question are
to:
 Split it down into different aspects that can be investigated
separately, e.g. political, economic, cultural, and technical.
 Explore different personal or group perspectives, e.g.
employers, employees.
 Investigate different concepts used, e.g. health, wealth,
confidence, sustainability.
 Consider the question at different scales, e.g. the individual,
group, organization.
 Compare the outcomes of different aspects from the above
ways of splitting down.
Conti--
 In this case the sub-questions could concentrate on:
 What constitutes intelligence? (Investigating a concept, i.e.
‘intelligence’.)
 What ways of testing intelligence are there? (Exploring
different perspectives – i.e. other intelligence tests, and
thus investigating the concept ‘test’.)
 What sort of school exams are there and how are they
marked? (Investigating another concept – i.e. ‘exams’.)
 How do school exam criteria match those of the criteria of
other intelligence tests? (Split into aspects – in this case,
criteria of exams and other intelligence tests.)
2.2 Formulating A Hypothesis/ Research Question
Different authors defined hypothesis as follows:
a) Eric Rogers, (1966): “Hypotheses are single tentative
guesses, good hunches –assumed for use in devising theory
or planning experiments intended to be given a direct
experimental test when possible”.
b) Kerlinger, (1956) “A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of
the relation between two or more variables”.
c) Creswell, (1994) “Hypothesis is a formal statement that
presents the expected relationship between an independent
and dependent variable.”
Conti--
 A good hypothesis is a very useful aid for organizing the research effort,
but it must have certain qualities. Such as:-
a) It must be a statement that can be put to the test.
b) It must specifically limit the enquiry to the interaction of certain
factors (usually called variables) and
c) Suggest the methods appropriate for collecting, analyzing and
interpreting the data.

Example: “School exam results are a true test of a student’s

intelligence.”
 The formulation of the hypothesis is usually made on an abstract or
conceptual level in order to enable the results of the research to be
generalized beyond the specific conditions of the particular study.
 It is therefore necessary to convert it to an operational level. This is
called operationalization.
Conti---
 Each sub-hypothesis will intimate a different method of
testing and therefore implies different research methods
that might be appropriate.
 This is a similar process to breaking down main research
questions into sub-questions. For example:
 The intelligence of students can be measured.
 Tests have been devised to accurately measure levels of
intelligence.
 School exams contain suitable tests to measure
students’ intelligence.
 The accuracy of school exams to test intelligence is
commensurate with specially devised intelligence tests.
Let us see:
 In your Hypothesis can be +ve or –ve. For positive statement it
could resemble “1” and for negative it becomes “0”
 For Example for above statement 1:
The intelligence of Students can be measured. H=1
The intelligence of Students cannot be measured. H=0

Research Question: ƒ“A research question is essentially a

hypothesis asked in the form of a question.”
2.3 Problem Formulation, Research Question and Hypothesis

 When the researcher think to undertake a research project

the first consideration should be designing the study.

 The problem will generate:-

 the subject of the research,
 its aims and objectives, and
 will indicate what sort of data need to be collected in
order to investigate the issues raised and
 what kind of analysis is suitable to enable you to come to
conclusions that provide answers to the questions raised
in the problem.
Conti---
 This process is common to virtually all research projects,
but the differences are due to their subject matters.
 The answers to four important questions underpin the
framework of any research project:
 What are you going to do? The subject of your research.
 Why are you going to do it? The reason for this research
being necessary or interesting.
 How are you going to do it? The research methods that
you will use to carry out the project.
 When are you going to do it? The programme of the
work.
Types of Hypotheses
1. Null Hypotheses: Designated by: H0 or HN Pronounced as “H
oh” or “H-null”.
 The null hypothesis represents a theory that has been put
forward, either because it is believed to be true or because it is
to be used as a basis for argument, but has not been proved. ƒ
 Has serious outcome if incorrect decision is made!
2. Alternative Hypotheses: Designated by: H1or HA
 It is a statement of what a hypothesis test is set up to establish.

 Opposite of Null Hypothesis. ƒOnly reached if H0 is rejected.

ƒ
 Frequently “alternative “is actual desired conclusion of the
researcher!
Conti---
EXAMPLE
 In a clinical trial of a new drug, the null hypothesis might
be that the new drug is no better, on average, than the
current drug.

 The alternative hypothesis might be that: the new drug

has a different effect, on average, compared to that of the
current drug. We would write H1: the two drugs have
different effects, on average.
CHAPTER THREE: DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
3.1 The purpose of Research proposal
 1.3.3 Designing the study
 When the researcher think to undertake a research project the
first consideration should be designing the study.
 The answers to four important questions underpin the
framework of any research project:
1. What are you going to do? The subject of your research.
2. Why are you going to do it? The reason for this research
being necessary or interesting.
3. How are you going to do it? The research methods that you
will use to carry out the project.
4. When are you going to do it? The programme of the work.
1.3.4 Collecting data
 Data Collection is an important aspect of any type of research study.
 Inaccurate data collection can impact the results of a study and
ultimately lead to invalid results.
 In collecting the data, the researcher must decide:
a) Which data to collect;
b) How to collect the data;
c) Who will collect the data; and
d) When to collect the data.
 The selection of the chosen data collection method should be based
on the following:
a) The identified hypothesis or research problem;
b) The research design;
c) The information gathered about the variables being studied.
Conti--
 The methods of data collection vary according to:
a) The degree of structure;
b) Degree of quantify ability;
c) Degree of obtrusive (conspicuousness, none-mistakeableness);
and
d) Degree of objectivity.
 The ways that data can be gathered include:
1. One-to-one interviews with key informants in an organization
(these might be face to face or by telephone)
2. Focus groups: discussion & interviews
3. Participant observation in a relevant social situation, e.g.
supermarket
4. A questionnaire survey, e.g. of relevant people in an
organization, or of consumers etc.
1. Interviews:
 It can be grouped into three main types:
a) Structured: involve the use of questionnaires
b) Semi-structured:
c) Unstructured: These are informal discussions
2. Focus Groups
 Focus groups are used to gather data, usually in the forms of opinions,
from a selected group of people on a particular and pre-determined
topic, e.g. consumer topic; political topic.
 The researcher creates a relaxed atmosphere and records in some way
what is being said (e.g. by use of a tape-recorder, video, note-taker etc).
 The purpose of the discussion is introduced and discussion ground-
rules agreed.
 The researcher encourages free discussion, but is ready to intervene if
necessary to resolve group problems.
3.Questionnaires: Main points to remember when designing and using
questionnaires:
 There are five types of questionnaire approaches:
 On-line (electronic)
 Postal (printed)
 Delivery & collection (printed)
 Telephone (electronic/printed)
 Interview face to face/group (electronic or printed)
 Questions can be open or closed:
a) Open questions: a question is posed, but space is left for the respondent’s
own answer
b) Closed questions: it applied where a limited number of alternative
responses to the set question are provided.
 These can be in list, category, ranking, scale/rating, grid or other
quantitative form.
 They can be pre-coded on a questionnaire to facilitate analysis.
1.3.5 Analyzing the Data
 Data becomes analyzed by quantitatively and qualitatively.
 Data can be analyzed through descriptive statistical tools and using different
econometric models.
 Before analyzing the collected data it must be edited, categorized, and coded.
a) Tabulation of Results: When the results of all the cases has been tabulated,
the frequency of the occurrence of the different codes throughout all the cases
can then be counted to interpret the result.
b) Data Mining: Data mining is a technique used extensively by business
managements to extract meaningful information from the huge databases that
are generated by electronic and other methods in modern businesses.
 It is often the starting point in decision based research.
 Company data are stored in databases called data warehouses or data marts,
containing data from all over the world in international companies.
 Data mining uses statistical tools to explore the data for interesting
relationships that can be exploited by the business, such as finding a gap in the
market or pinpointing areas of increasing demand.
Conti--
c) Statistical Tests (Parametric):
 There are two classes of parametric statistical tests:
 descriptive and
 inferential.
 Descriptive tests will reveal the ‘shape’ of the data in the sense of how the values of a
variable are distributed.
 Inferential tests will suggest (i.e. infer) results from a sample in relation to a
population.
 Distinction is also made between the numbers of variables considered in relation to
each other like median, mode, mean, score, and Cases.
d) Univariate analysis: it is analyses the qualities of one variable at a time.
 Only descriptive tests can be used in this type of analysis.
e) Bivariate analysis: considers the properties of two variables in relation to each other.
 Inferences can be drawn from this type of analysis.
f) Multivariate analysis: looks at the relationships between more than two variables.
 Again, inferences can be drawn from results.
Conti---
A range of properties of one variable can be examined using the
following measures.
a)Frequency Distribution: Usually presented as a table, frequency
distribution simply shows the values for each variable expressed as a
number and as a percentage of the total of cases.
b)Measure of Central Tendency: Central tendency is one number that
denotes various ‘averages’ of the values for a variable.
There are several measures that can be used, such as
 the arithmetic mean (average),
 the median (the mathematical middle between the highest and lowest
value) and
 the mode (the most frequently occurring value).
 Normal distribution is when the mean, median and mode are located
at the same value.
c) Measures of Dispersion (or Variability)
 Measurements of dispersion can be expressed in
several ways:
range (the distance between the highest and lowest value),
interquartile range (the distance between the top and
bottom quarters of the values) and
other more mathematical measures such as standard
deviation and standard error.
 Statistical Significance
 This means how likely is it that the results indicate the
situation for the whole population.
 Are the results simply occasioned by chance or are they
truly representative, i.e. are they statistically significant?
Analysis Of Variance
 The above tests are all designed to look for relationships between variables.
 Another common requirement is to look for differences between values
obtained under two or more different conditions,
 e.g. a group before and after a training course, or
 three groups after different training courses.
a) For a single group, say the performance of students on a particular course
compared with the mean results of all the other courses in the university
you can use the chi-square or the one group t-test.
b) For two groups, e.g. comparing the results from the same course at two
different universities, you can use the two group t-tests, which compares
the means of two groups.
c) For three or more groups e.g. the performance of three different age groups
in a test. It is necessary to identify the dependent and independent
variables that will be tested. A simple test using SPSS is ANOVA (analysis
of variance).
Multiple Regressions:
 this is a technique used to measure the effects of two or more
independent variables on a single dependent variable measured on
interval or ratio scales,
 e.g. the effect on income due to age, education, ethnicity, area of living, and gender.
Logistic Regression:
 this method is a development of multiple regressions, that has the
added advantage of holding certain variables.
 It is suitable for assessing the influence of independent variables on
dependent variables measured in nominal scale
 (e.g. whether a candidate’s decision to accept a job was determined
by a range of considerations such as
 amount of income,
 future promotion prospects,
 level of enjoyment of corporate life,
 amount of interest in the duties etc.).
Statistical Tests (Non-Parametric)
 Statistical tests built around discovering the means, standard
deviations etc.
 Hence, non-parametric data cannot be statistically tested in the
above ways.
 Non-parametric statistical tests are used when:
1. The sample size is very small; x few assumptions can
be made about the data;
2. Data are rank ordered or nominal;
3. Samples are taken from several different populations.
Activity-1
 Discus the purposes of research?
 Define the research problem and explain its purpose to
research?
 Discus The ways that data can be gathered?
 CHAPTER THREE
DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
3.1 The purpose of Research proposal
 One of the skills essential to successful research is that of writing.
 Good communication is required at every stage of the project, but the main writing
tasks are located at the beginning and end of the research project
 at the beginning to explain what you will do in the research, and
 at the end to explain what you have done and what you have found out.
 Most students and beginning researchers do not fully understand what a research
proposal means, nor do they understand its importance.
 To put it bluntly, one's research is only as a good as one's proposal.
 An ill-conceived proposal dooms the project even if it somehow gets through the
Thesis Supervisory Committee.
 A high quality proposal, on the other hand, not only promises success for the project,
but also impresses your Thesis Committee about your potential as a researcher.
 Regardless of your research area and the methodology you choose, all research
proposals must address the following questions:
a) What you plan to accomplish,
b) Why you want to do it and how you are going to do it.
2.2 Structure of a Research Proposal
 Before starting a research programme it is necessary to work out exactly what
you want to do, why and how.
 Fortunately, research proposals tend to follow a defined pattern.
 Academic research proposals are usually composed of the following elements:
1. the title;
2. Introduction (the background to the research) – context and previous research;
3. a definition of the research problem;
4. Objectives (aims) of the research;
5. Research Question/Hypothesis;
6. Significance of the study;
7. Scope of the study;
8. Delimitations/limitations of the study;
9. Review of the Related Literature;
10. outline of Research methods;
11. possible outcomes;
12. timetable of the project and description of any resources required;
13. List of references.
2.2.1 Introduction of the study
The main purpose of the introduction is to provide the necessary background
or context for your research problem.
How to frame the research problem is perhaps the biggest problem in
proposal writing.
The introduction generally covers the following elements:
1. State the research problem, which is often referred to as the purpose of the
study.
2. Provide the context and set the stage for your research question.
3. Present the rationale of your proposed study and clearly indicate why it is
worth doing.
4. Briefly describe the major issues and sub-problems to be addressed by
your research.
5. Identify the key independent and dependent variables of your experiment.
6. State your hypothesis or theory, if any. For exploratory or
phenomenological research, you may not have any hypotheses.
7. Set the delimitation or boundaries of your proposed research in order to
provide a clear focus.
8. Provide definitions of key concepts. (This is optional.)
2.2.2 Statement of the Problem
A. “The problem statement describes the context for the study and it also identifies
the general analysis approach” (Wiersma, 1995, p. 404).
B. “A problem might be defined as the issue that exists in the literature, theory, or
practice that leads to a need for the study” (Creswell, 1994, p. 50).
C. It is important in a proposal that the problem stand out—that the reader can
easily recognize it.
D. A problem statement should be presented within a context, and that context
should be provided and briefly explained, including a discussion of the
conceptual or theoretical framework in which it is embedded.
E. State the problem in terms intelligible to someone who is generally
sophisticated but who is relatively uninformed in the area of your investigation.
F. Effective problem statements answer the question “Why does this research need
to be conducted.”
G. For conference proposals, the statement of the problem is generally incorporated
into the introduction; academic proposals for theses or dissertations should have
this as a separate section.
 2.2.3 Objective of the Study
The research objective is the research/researchers intension to get or to reach what
result from the study.
It can be draw out from:
 the title of the study,
 the gap (the problem statement), and
 the question/hypothesis rose to answered.

2.2.4 Questions and/or Hypotheses

Questions are relevant to normative or census type research (How many of them
are there? Is there a relationship between them?).
They are most often used in qualitative inquiry, although their use in quantitative
inquiry is becoming more prominent.
A research question poses a relationship between two or more variables but
phrases the relationship as a question;
a hypothesis represents a declarative statement of the relations between two or
more variables (Kerlinger, 1979; Krathwohl, 1988).
Hypotheses can be couched in four kinds of statements
a) Literary null—a “no difference” form in terms of theoretical
constructs.
 For example, “There is no difference in school
achievement for high and low self-regulated students.”
b) Operational null—a “no difference” form in terms of the
operation required to test the hypothesis.
 For example, “There is no difference between the mean
grade point averages achieved by students in the upper and
lower quartiles of the distribution of the Self-regulated
Inventory.”
 The operational null is generally the preferred form of
hypothesis-writing.
 Conti--
c) Literary alternative—a form that states the hypothesis you
will accept if the null hypothesis is rejected, stated in terms of
theoretical constructs. In other words, this is usually what you
hope the results will show.
 For example, “High self-regulated students will achieve
more in their classes than low self-regulated students.”
d) Operational alternative—similar to the literary alternative
except that the operations are specified.
 For example, "Students in the upper quartile of the Self-
regulated Inventory distribution achieve significantly
higher grade point averages than do students in the lower
quartile.”
2.2.5 Purpose of the Study
 The purpose statement should provide a specific and accurate synopsis of
the overall purpose of the study.
 If the purpose is not clear to the writer, it cannot be clear to the reader.
 Briefly define and delimit the specific area of the research.
 In purpose the Key points to keep in mind when preparing a purpose
statement:-
1) Try to incorporate a sentence that begins with “The purpose of this
study is . . .”
2) Clearly identify and define the central concepts or ideas of the study.
 Some committee Chairs prefer a separate section to this end.
 When defining terms, make a judicious choice between using
descriptive or operational definitions.
3) Identify the specific method of inquiry to be used.
4) Identify the unit of analysis in the study.
2.2.6 Significance of the Study
A. Indicate how your research will refine, revise, or extend
existing knowledge in the area under investigation.
B. Most studies have two potential audiences: practitioners and
professional peers. Statements relating the research to both
groups are in order.
C. This can be a difficult section to write. Think about
implications—how results of the study may affect scholarly
research, theory, practice, educational interventions,
curricula, counseling, policy.
 Conti--
D) When thinking about the significance of your study, ask
yourself the following questions.
 What will results mean to the theoretical framework that framed
the study?
 What suggestions for subsequent research arise from the findings?
 What will the results mean to the practicing educator?
 Will results influence programs, methods, and/or interventions?
 Will results contribute to the solution of educational problems?
 Will results influence educational policy decisions?
 What will be improved or changed as a result of the proposed
research?
 How will results of the study be implemented, and what
innovations will come about?
2.2.7 Limitations and Delimitations

1. Limitation identifies potential weaknesses of the study.

2. Delimitation addresses how a study will be narrowed in
scope, that is, how it is bounded.
 This is the place to explain the things that you are:-
 not doing and why you have chosen not to do them—
 the literature you will not review (and why not),
 the population you are not studying (and why not),
 the methodological procedures you will not use (and
why you will not use them).
2.2.8 Review of the Literature
A. “The review of the literature provides the background and
context for the research problem.
B. The literature review accomplishes several important things.
1. It shares with the reader the results of other studies that are
closely related to the study being reported.
2. It relates a study to the larger, ongoing dialogue in the literature
about a topic, filling in gaps and extending prior studies.
3. It provides a framework for establishing the importance of the
study.
4. It “frames” the problem earlier identified.
C. Demonstrate to the reader that you have a comprehensive
grasp of the field and are aware of important recent
substantive and methodological developments.
 Conti--
D. Delineate the “jumping-off place” for your study. How will
your study refine, revise, or extend what is now known?
E. Avoid statements that imply that little has been done in the
area or that what has been done is too expensive to permit
easy summary.
F. In a proposal, the literature review is generally brief and to
the point.
G. Committees may want a section outlining your search
strategy—the procedures you used and sources you
investigated
2.2.9 The Research Methodology
A. “The methods or procedures section is really the heart of the
research proposal. The activities should be described with as much
detail as possible, and the continuity between them should be
apparent” (Wiersma, 1995, p. 409).
B. Indicate the methodological steps you will take to answer every
question or to test every hypothesis illustrated in the
Questions/Hypotheses section.
C. All research is plagued by the presence of confounding variables
(the noise that covers up the information you would like to have).
 In the design section, indicates:-
1. The variables you propose to control and how you propose to
control them, experimentally or statistically, and
2. The variables you propose to randomize and the nature of the
randomizing unit (students, grades, schools, etc.).
 Conti--
D. Be aware of possible sources of error to which your design exposes you. You will not
produce a perfect, error free design (no one can).
E. Sampling
1) The key reason for being concerned with sampling is that of validity—the extent to which
the interpretations of the results of the study follow from the study itself and the extent to
which results may be generalized to other situations with other people (Shavelson, 1988).
2) Sampling is critical to external validity—the extent to which findings of a study can be
generalized to people or situations other than those observed in the study.
3) Another reason for being concerned with sampling is that of internal validity—the extent
to which the outcomes of a study result from the variables that were manipulated,
measured, or selected rather than from other variables not systematically treated.
4) Perhaps the key word in sampling is representative.
5) When a sample is drawn out of convenience (a no probability sample), rationale and
limitations must be clearly provided.
6) If available, outline the characteristics of the sample (by gender, race/ethnicity,
socioeconomic status, or other relevant group membership).
7) Detail procedures to follow to obtain informed consent and ensure anonymity and/or
confidentiality.
F. Instrumentation

1) Outline the instruments you propose to use (surveys, scales,

interview protocols, observation grids). If instruments have
previously been used, identify previous studies and findings
related to reliability and validity.
2) Because selection of instruments in most cases provides the
operational definition of constructs, this is a crucial step in
the proposal.
3) Include an appendix with a copy of the instruments to be
used or the interview protocol to be followed. Also include
sample items in the description of the instrument.
4) For a mailed survey, identify steps to be taken in
administering and following up the survey to obtain a high
response rate.
 G. Data Collection
1) Outline the general plan for collecting the data.
 This may include survey administration procedures,
 interview or observation procedures.
 Include an explicit statement covering the field controls to be
employed.
 If appropriate, discuss how you obtained entry.
2) Provide a general outline of the time schedule you expect to
follow.
H. Data Analysis
3) Indicate briefly any analytic tools you will have available and
expect to use (e.g., Ethnograph, NUDIST, AQUAD, SAS, SPSS,
SYSTAT).
4) Provide a well thought-out rationale for your decision to use the
design, methodology, and analyses you have selected.
2.2.10 Work plan and Budget / Logistics
There is always a time limit to research projects.
Resources that are essential to the project, such as equipment, transport,
skills, software etc. should be listed and availability assured in order to
convince the reader (and yourself) of the practicality of achieving the aims
of the project.
Therefore, during preparing the research proposal:-
a) The work (action) plan must be prepared clearly.
 It must incorporate the specific work to be done,
 the tentative time to perform such specific work,
 the place,
 the responsible person to carry out such job, and
 the remark.
b) Budget/logistic: just after scheduling the activity to be done for each
and every activity the required amount of budget/logistic must be
planned.
2.2.11 References
A. Follow APA (2001) guidelines regarding use of references in text
and in the reference list. Of course, your committee or discipline
may require Chicago or MLA.
B. Only references cited in the text are included in the reference list;
however, exceptions can be found to this rule.
 For example, committees (your advisor) may require evidence that you are
familiar with a broader spectrum of literature than that immediately
relevant to your research.
 In such instances, the reference list may be called a bibliography.
C. Some committees require that reference lists and/or
bibliographies be “annotated,” which is to say that each entry be
accompanied by a brief description, or an abstract. Check with
your committee Chair before the fact.
2.2.12 Appendixes
 The need for complete documentation generally dictates the
inclusion of appropriate appendixes in proposals (although this is
generally not the case as regards conference proposals).
 The following materials are appropriate for an appendix:-
 Verbatim instructions to participants.
 Original scales or questionnaires.
 If an instrument is copyrighted, permission in writing to
reproduce the instrument from the copyright holder or proof of
purchase of the instrument.
 Interview protocols.
 Sample of informed consent forms.
 Cover letters sent to appropriate stakeholders.
 Official letters of permission to conduct research.
2.2.12 Proposal writing (written Assignment)
 CHAPTER THREE:
SAMPLING DESIGN
3.1 Introduction to Sampling
 The way in which we select a sample of individuals to be research
participants is critical.
 How we select participants (random sampling) will determine the population
to which we may generalize our research findings.
 The procedure that we use for assigning participants to different treatment
conditions (random assignment) will determine whether bias exists in our
treatment groups
 (Are the groups equal on all known and unknown factors?).
 We address random sampling in this chapter; we will address random
assignment later in the book.
 If we are interested in the effect of TV violence on children,
 which children are we going to observe?
 Where do they come from?
 How many?
 How will they be selected?
 3.1.1 Distinguishing Between a Sample and a Population
 Before describing sampling procedures, we need to
define a few key terms.
a) Population: the term population means all members that
meet a set of specifications or a specified criterion.
b) Element: A single member of any given population is
referred to as an element.
c) Sample: When only some elements are selected from a
population, we refer to that as a sample
d) Census: when all elements are included, we call it a
census.
3.2 Sampling Design

 Researchers use two major sampling designs:

 probability sampling and
 non-probability sampling.
 With non-probability sampling, there is no way of estimating the
probability of an element’s being included in a sample.
 If the researcher’s interest is in generalizing the findings derived
from the sample to the general population, then probability
sampling is far more useful and precise.

3.2.1 Probability Sampling Design

 It is also referred to as random sampling or representative
sampling.
 The word random describes the procedure used to select elements
(participants, cars, test items) from a population.
 Conti--
 When random sampling is used, each element in the population
has an
 equal chance of being selected (simple random sampling) or
a
 known probability of being selected (stratified random
sampling).
 The sample is referred to as representative because the
characteristics of a properly drawn sample represent the parent
population in all ways.
 One caution before we begin our description of simple random
sampling: Random sampling is different from random assignment.
 Random assignment describes the process of placing participants
into different experimental groups.
Table 3.1: Advantage and Limitations of Four Sampling Techniques
Sampling Techniques Examples Advantages Disadvantage

Simple Random Sampling The names of all 1,000 Representative of the May be difficult to obtain
children are placed in to population the list.
computer data base. The May be more expensive
computer then instructed
to randomly Select 100
names. These students and
their parents are then
contacted.
Stratified Random The names of all 1,000 Representative of the May be difficult to obtain
Sampling children are placed in to population the list.
computer data base and May be more expensive
organized by grade (sixth,
seventh, eighth). The
computer then instructed
to randomly Select 35
names from each of the
three grades. These
students and their parents
are then contacted.
 Conti--
Sampling Techniques Examples Advantages Disadvantage

Convenience Sampling The researcher knows one of the school Simple, easy, convenient, May not be the representative
teachers and teacher volunteer has 35 no complete member list of the population
students for the study. These students needed.
and their parents are then contacted.

Quota Sampling Using the middle school directory, the Simple, easy, convenient, May not be the representative
researcher select the first 20 sixth grade no complete member list of the population
boys, the first 20 sixth grade girls, the needed.
first 20 seventh grade boys, the first 20
seventh grade girls, the first 20 eighth
grade boys, the first 20 eighth grade
girls. These students and their parents
are then contacted.
3.2.2 Non-Probability Sampling Design
 Non-probability sampling, there is no way of estimating the
probability of an element’s being included in a sample.

 Unfortunately, it is also simplest and not expensive than

probability sampling.
 CHAPTER FOUR: THE SOURCES AND COLLECTION OF DATA
4.1 Types and Sources of Data
 Statistical data are the basic raw material of statistics.
 Data may relate to an activity of
 our interest,
 a phenomenon, or
 a problem situation under study.
 They derive as a result of the process of measuring, counting
and/or observing.
 Statistical data, therefore, refer to those aspects of a problem
situation that can be measured, quantified, counted, or
classified.
 Conti--
Any object subject phenomenon, or activity that generates data through this process is termed as a
variable.
In other words, a variable is one that shows a degree of variability when successive measurements
are recorded.
In statistics, data are classified into two broad categories:
a) Quantitative data and
b) Qualitative data.
1.Quantitative data are those that can be quantified in definite units of measurement.
Depending on the nature of the variable observed for measurement, quantitative data can be further
categorized as continuous and discrete data.
a)Continuous data represent the numerical values of a continuous variable.
 A continuous variable is the one that can assume any value between any two points on a line
segment, thus representing an interval of values.
 The values are quite precise and close to each other, yet distinguishably different.
 All characteristics such as weight, length, height, thickness, velocity, temperature, tensile strength,
etc., represent continuous variables.
 It may be noted that a continuous variable assumes the finest unit of measurement.
 Finest in the sense that it enables measurements to the maximum degree of precision.
b)Discrete data are the values assumed by a discrete variable.
 A discrete variable is the one whose outcomes are measured in fixed numbers.
 Such data are essentially count data.
 Conti---
These are derived from a process of counting, such
as the number of items possessing or not
possessing a certain characteristic.
The number of customers visiting a
departmental store every day,
the incoming flights at an airport, and
the defective items in a consignment received
for sale, etc.
2. Qualitative data
 refer to qualitative characteristics of a subject or an object.
 A characteristic is qualitative in nature when its observations are defined
and noted in terms of the presence or absence of a certain attribute in
discrete numbers.
 Data can be measured in different ways depending on their nature.
 These are commonly referred to as levels of measurement – nominal,
ordinal, interval and ratio. These data are further classified as nominal and
rank data.
a) Nominal data are the outcome of classification into two or more
categories of items or units comprising a sample or a population
according to some quality characteristic.
 Classification of students according to sex (as males and females),
 of workers according to skill (as skilled, semi-skilled, and unskilled), and
 of employees according to the level of education (as matriculates, undergraduates,
and post-graduates), all result into nominal data.
 Conti--
b) Ordinal (Rank) data, on the other hand, are the result of assigning ranks
to specify order in terms of the integers 1,2,3, ..., n.
 Ranks may be assigned according to the level of performance in a test.
a contest, a competition, an interview, or a show.
c) Interval Level: With this form of measurement, the data must be able to be
measured precisely on a regular scale of some sort, without there being a
meaningful zero.
 For example temperature scales, in the Fahrenheit, Celsius and Rainier
scales, the gradation between each degree is equal to all the others, but the
zero point has been established arbitrarily.
 Another example is the calendar date – compare the Chinese and Western
calendars.
 In the social sciences, some variables, such as attitudes, are frequently
measured on a scale like this:
Unfavorable –4 –3 –2 –1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 Favorable
d) Ratio Level
 the ratio level of measurement is the most complete level of
measurement, having a true zero.
 A characteristic difference between the ratio scale and all other scales
is that the ratio scale can express values in terms of multiples of
fractional parts, and the ratios are true ratios.
 For example, a meter is a multiple (by 100) of a centimeter distance; a
millimeter is a tenth (a fractional part) of a centimeter. The ratios are
1:100 and 1:10.
 There is no ambiguity in the statements ‘twice as far’, ‘twice as fast’
and ‘twice as heavy’.
 Of all levels of measurement, the ratio scale is amenable to the
greatest range of statistical tests.
 In summary, you can use the following simple test to determine which
kind of data measurement that you can use on the values of a variable.
 Conti---
 If you can say that:
 one value is different from another, you have a
nominal scale;
 one value is bigger, better or more of anything than
another, you have an ordinal scale;
 one value is so many units (degrees, inches) more or
less than another, you have an interval scale;
 One value is so many times as big or bright or tall or
heavy as another, you have a ratio scale.
 Data sources could be seen as of two types, viz.,
secondary and primary those can be defined at the next
topic.
3. Mixed Methods
 This is the combining both qualitative and quantitative
research data, techniques and methods within a single
research framework.
 Mixed methods may mean a number of things, i.e. a
number of different types of methods in a study or at
different points within a study or using a mixture of
qualitative and quantitative methods.
 Mixed methods encompass multifaceted approaches that
combine to capitalize on strengths and reduce weaknesses
that stem from using a single research design.
 Using this approach to gather and evaluate data may assist
to increase the validity and reliability of the research.
 Conti--
 Some of the common areas in which mixed-method approaches
may be used include:-
Initiating,
designing,
Developing and expanding interventions;
Evaluation;
Improving research design; and
Corroborating findings, data triangulation or convergence.
 Some of the challenges of using a mixed methods approach
include:-
Delineating complementary qualitative and quantitative research
questions;
Time-intensive data collection and analysis; and
Decisions regarding which research methods to combine.
 4.2 Methods of primary Data collection
Primary data are those data which do not already exist in any form, and thus
have to be collected for the first time from the primary source(s).
In primary data collection, you collect the data yourself using qualitative and
quantitative methods.
The key point here is that the data you collect is unique to you and your
research and, until you publish, no one else has access to it.
There are many methods of collecting primary data. The main methods include:
 Questionnaires
 Interviews
 Focus Group Interviews
 Observation
 Survey
 Case-studies
 Diaries
 Activity Sampling Technique etc.
 4.3 Methods of secondary Data collection
Data collected from a source that has already been published in any form is called as
secondary data.
For examples, Census data being used to analyze the impact of education on career choice
and earning.
Common sources of secondary data for social science include censuses, organizational
records and data collected through qualitative methodologies or qualitative research.
Secondary data is essential, since it is impossible to conduct a new survey that can
adequately capture past change and/or developments.
The following are some ways (sources) of collecting secondary data:-
 Books
 Records
 Biographies
 Newspapers
 Published censuses or other statistical data
 Data archives
 Internet articles
 Research articles by other researchers (journals)
 Databases, etc.
 4.3.1 Importance of Secondary Data
 Secondary data can be less valid but its importance is still
there.
 Sometimes primary data does not exist in such situation one
has to confine the research on secondary data.
 Sometimes primary data is present but the respondents are not
willing to reveal it in such case too secondary data can suffice.
 Advantages of Using Secondary Data:-
No hassles of data collection
It is less expensive.
The investigator is not personally responsible for the
quality of data (‘I didn’t do it’).
Disadvantages of Using Secondary Data:-
 The data collected by the third party may not be a
reliable party so the reliability and accuracy of data go
down.
 Data collected in one location may not be suitable for
the other one due variable environmental factor.
 With the passage of time the data becomes obsolete
and very old.
 Secondary data collected can distort the results of the
research. For using secondary data a special care is
required to amend or modify for use.
 Secondary data can also raise issues of authenticity
and copyright.
 CHAPTER FIVE: DATA ANALYSIS SOFTWARE
5.1 Spread sheet application in data analysis
 A spreadsheet is a computer program that turns your computer screen into
a smart piece of paper.
 It removes much of the grunt work associated with repetitive calculations
and lets you easily see the results of your work.
 key aspect that makes a spreadsheet so powerful is that:
 whenever you change a number or formula in your spreadsheet, everything
else in the spreadsheet that depends on that number or formula gets
automatically recalculated, including plots
 everything you do in a spreadsheet is saved and displayed in an intuitive
graphical interface (the spreadsheet).
 extremely useful for data analysis is because of their ability to plot data.
 Rather than having to draw a graph by hand, you can just select the
numbers you want to plot and the spreadsheet will do the work.
 if you change the numbers or formulas, the graph changes automatically.
 it can easily handle the statistical analysis of data sets with hundreds,
thousands, or even tens of thousands of points, something that you would
never want to try doing on a calculator.
The Basics
 A spreadsheet consists of a collection of cells arranged in a big
table.
 The cells are labeled by their column and row location (see
Table 1 below).
 For example cell A4 is in the first column, the fourth cell
down.
 A cell can contain a label (text), a number, or a formula.
 5.2 Software application in data analysis (SPSS)

 The “Statistical Package for the Social Sciences”

(SPSS) is a package of programs for manipulating,
analyzing, and presenting data;
 the package is widely used in the social and
behavioral sciences.
 There are several forms of SPSS.
 In our experience, the most important of these for
statistical analysis are the SPSS Advanced Models
and SPSS Regression Models add-on modules.
 SPSS Inc. also distributes stand-alone programs
that work with SPSS.
 SPSS-----
 No previous experience of statistics or computing is required as provided a
step-by-step guide to statistical techniques, including:
 Non-parametric tests
 Correlation
 Simple and multiple regression
 Analysis of variance and covariance
 Factor analysis
5.2.1 SPSS Basics
A. SPSS Window
 There are six different windows that can be opened when using SPSS. The
following will give a description of each of them.
 The Data Editor: The Data Editor is a spreadsheet in which you define
your variables and enter data.
 The Output Navigator: The Output Navigator window displays the
statistical results, tables, and charts from the analysis you performed.
 The Pivot Table Editor: Output displayed in pivot tables can be modified
in many ways with the Pivot Table Editor.  
 Conti--
 The Chart Editor: You can modify and save high-resolution
charts and plots by invoking the Chart Editor for a certain
chart (by double-clicking the chart) in an Output Navigator
window.
 You can change the colors, select different type fonts or sizes, switch
the horizontal and vertical axes, rotate 3-D scatter plots, and change the
chart type.
 The Text Output Editor: Text output not displayed in pivot
tables can be modified with the Text Output Editor.
 The Syntax Editor: You can paste your dialog box selections
into a Syntax Editor window, where your selections appear in
the form of command syntax.
B. Starting A SPSS Session
1. Logon to your Polaris account.
2. Select Programs from the Start menu.
3. Select Scientific from the Programs drop down menu.
4. Select SPSS 7.5 from the Scientific drop down menu.
C. Getting Help on SPSS
 Locating Topics in the Help Menu
1. Select Topics from the Help Menu on the Data Editor.
2. Select the Contents tab. This will give a set of books to look
under for the required information.
 Searching for Information in the Help Menu
1. Select Topics from the Help menu.
2. Select the Index tab.
3. Type a word in the text box describing the information to search
for. This will give a list of headings on the desired information.
D. Ending A SPSS Session
1. Select Exit SPSS from the File menu on the Data Editor.

 Creating and Manipulating Data in SPSS: When creating or accessing data in SPSS, the Data
Editor window is used.
A. Creating a New Data Set
 There are three steps that must be followed to create a new data set in
SPSS.
Step 1: Defining Variables in a New Data Set
 Variables are defined one at a time using the Define Variable dialog box.
 This box assigns data definition information to variables.
 To access the Define Variable dialog box, double-click on the top of a
column where the word var appears or select Define Variable from the
Data menu.
 Variable Name: This field describes the name of the variable being
defined.
 Type: This field describes the type of variable that is being defined.
Variable Label: There are two types of variable labels:
1. Variable Label: A name for the variable that can be up to 120
characters long and can include spaces (which variable names
cannot).
2. Value Label: Provides a key for translating numeric data.
 Missing Values: This field indicates which subset of the data
will not be included in the data set.
 To change this field, click on the Missing Value button.
 Alignment: This field indicates column alignment and width.
Step 2: Entering Data in a New Data Set
 Once all of the variables are defined, enter the data manually
(assuming that the data is not already in an external file).
 The data is typed into the spreadsheet one cell at a time.
 Each cell represents an observation.
Step 3: Saving a New Data Set
 Work performed on a data set only lasts during the current
session.
 To retain the current data set, it must be saved to a file.
 Select Save from the File menu.
 The Save Data As dialog box opens.
 From the Save as Type drop-down list, select SPSS
(*.sav).
 From the Save in drop-down list, select the path where
the file will be saved.
 In the File name box, enter a name for the file. SPSS
automatically adds the extension .sav.
 Click Save.
Problem---
 The following data regarding a person’s name, age and weight
must be entered into a data set using SPSS.

Name Age Weight

Mark 39 250
Allison 43 125
Tom 27 180
Candy 24 130