Chapter 2: Operating-System

Structures

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Objectives
 To describe the services an operating system
provides to users, processes, and other systems
 To discuss the various ways of structuring an
operating system
 To explain how operating systems are booted

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 2.1 Operating System Services

 Operating systems provide an environment for the execution

of programs.
 Operating systems provides certain services to:
 Programs
 Users of those programs
 Basically two types of services:
 Set of operating-system services provides functions that
are helpful to the user:
 Set of operating-system functions for ensuring the
efficient operation of the system itself via resource
sharing

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 OS Services Helpful to the User

 One of the many OS services is User interface.

 User interface - Almost all operating systems have a user
interface (UI). This interface can take several forms:
 Command-Line (CLI) -- uses text commands and a
method for entering them (say, a keyboard for typing in
commands in a specific format with specific options).
 Graphics User Interface (GUI) -- the interface is a
window system with a pointing device to direct I\O,
choose from menus, and make selections and a
keyboard to enter text..
 Batch Interface -- commands and directives to control
those commands are entered into files, and those files
are executed
Some systems provide two or all three of these variations.
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 A View of Operating System Services

Figure 2.1

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 2.2.1 Command Interpreters (CLI)
CLI allows users to directly enter commands to be performed by
the operating system.

 Some operating systems include the command interpreter in the

kernel.
 Some operating systems, such as Windows and UNIX, treat the
command interpreter as a special program that is running when a job
is initiated or when a user first logs on.
 On systems with multiple command interpreters to choose from, the
interpreters are known as shells.
 The main function of the command interpreter is to get and execute
the next user-specified command.
 Sometimes commands built-in, sometimes just names of programs
 If the latter, adding new features doesn’t require shell modification

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 The Bourne shell command interpreter in Solaris

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 2.2.2 Graphical User Interfaces (GUI)

 User-friendly desktop metaphor interface

 Usually mouse, keyboard, and monitor
 Icons represent files, programs, actions, etc
 Various mouse buttons over objects in the interface cause
various actions (provide information, options, execute
function, open directory (known as a folder)
 Invented at Xerox PARC
 Many systems now include both CLI and GUI interfaces
 Microsoft Windows is GUI with CLI “command” shell
 Apple Mac OS X is “Aqua” GUI interface with UNIX kernel
underneath and shells available
 Unix and Linux have CLI with optional GUI interfaces
(CDE, KDE, GNOME)
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Touchscreen Interfaces

 Touchscreen devices require

new interfaces
 Mouse not possible or not
desired
 Actions and selection based
on gestures
 Virtual keyboard for text
entry
 Voice commands.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 The Mac OS X GUI

Figure 2.4
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 2.3 System Calls
 Programming interface to the services provided by the OS
 Typically written in a high-level language (C or C++)
 Mostly accessed by programs via a high-level Application
Programming Interface (API) rather than direct system call
 Three most common APIs are:
 Win32 API for Windows,
 POSIX API for POSIX-based systems (including virtually
all versions of UNIX, Linux, and Mac OS X),
 Java API for the Java virtual machine (JVM)

Note that the system-call names used throughout this

text are generic

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Example of System Calls

 System call sequence to copy the contents of one file to

another file

Figure 2.5

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 Example of Standard API

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 2.4 Types of System Calls
 System calls can be grouped roughly into six major
categories:
 Process control,
 File manipulation,
 Device manipulation,
 Information maintenance,
 Communications,
 Protection.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Examples of Windows and Unix System Calls

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 2.5 System Programs
 System programs provide a convenient environment for
program development and execution.
 Some of them are simply user interfaces to system calls.
Others are considerably more complex.
 They can be divided into:
 File manipulation
 Status information sometimes stored in a File modification
 Programming language support
 Program loading and execution
 Communications
 Background services
 Application programs
 Most users’ view of the operation system is defined by
system programs, not the actual system calls

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 2.7 Operating System Structure

 Various ways to structure an operating system:

 Monolithic structure
 Simple structure – MS-DOS
 More complex – UNIX
 More complex – Linux
 Layered – An abstraction
 Microkernel - Mach

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 2.7.1 Simple Structure: MS-DOS

 MS-DOS – written to
provide the most
functionality in the least
amount of space
 MS-DOS was limited by
hardware funcionality.
 Not divided into
modules
 Although MS-DOS has
some structure, its
interfaces and levels of
functionality are not well
separated

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 2.7.1 More Complex: UNIX

 UNIX – the original UNIX operating system had limited

structuring and was limited by hardware functionality.
 The UNIX OS consists of two separable parts
 Systems programs
 The kernel
 Consists of everything below the system-call interface and
above the physical hardware
 Provides the file system, CPU scheduling, memory
management, and other operating-system functions; a large
number of functions for one level

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 Traditional UNIX System Structure

Figure 2.12

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 Linux System Structure

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 2.7.2 Layered Approach

 A system can be made modular in many ways. One method

is the layered approach, in which the operating system is
broken into a number of layers (levels). The bottom layer
(layer 0) is the hardware; the highest (layer N) is the user
interface.

Figure 2.13
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 2.7.3 Microkernel System Structure
 Moves as much from the kernel into user space
 Mach example of microkernel
 Mac OS X kernel (Darwin) partly based on Mach
 Communication takes place between user modules using
message passing
 Benefits:
 Easier to extend a microkernel
 Easier to port the operating system to new architectures
 More reliable (less code is running in kernel mode)
 More secure
 Detriments:
 Performance overhead of user space to kernel space
communication

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 Microkernel System Structure

Figure 2.14

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 2.7.4 Modules
 Many modern operating systems implement loadable kernel
modules
 Uses object-oriented approach
 Each core component is separate
 Each talks to the others over known interfaces
 Each is loadable as needed within the kernel
 Overall, similar to layers but with more flexible
 Linux, Solaris, etc

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 2.7.5 Hybrid Systems
 In practice, very few operating systems adopt a single,
strictly defined structure.
 Instead, they combine different structures, resulting in hybrid
systems that address performance, security, and usability
issues.
 For example, Linux is monolithic, because having the operating
system in a single address space provides very efficient
performance. However, Linux are also modular, so that new
functionality can be dynamically added to the kernel.
 Examples of the structure of hybrid systems:
 Apple Mac operating system (laptop)
 iOS (mobile operating systems)
 Android (mobile operating systems)

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 Architecture of Mac OS X and iOS

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Android
 Developed by Open Handset Alliance (mostly Google)
 Open Source
 Similar stack to iOS
 Based on Linux kernel but modified
 Provides process, memory, device-driver management
 Adds power management
 Runtime environment includes core set of libraries and
Dalvik virtual machine
 Apps developed in Java plus Android API
 Java class files compiled to Java bytecode then translated
to executable than runs in Dalvik VM
 Libraries include frameworks for web browser (webkit),
database (SQLite), multimedia, smaller libc
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 Android Architecture

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 2.10 System Boot

 When power initialized on system, execution starts at a fixed

memory location
 Firmware ROM used to hold initial boot code
 Operating system must be made available to hardware so
hardware can start it
 Small piece of code – bootstrap loader, stored in ROM or
EEPROM locates the kernel, loads it into memory, and starts it
 Sometimes two-step process where boot block at fixed
location loaded by ROM code, which loads bootstrap loader
from disk
 Common bootstrap loader, GRUB, allows selection of kernel
from multiple disks, versions, kernel options
 Kernel loads and system is then running

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.30 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 EXERCISE
From Silberchatz, Operating System Concepts Chapter 2
Exercises

 Odd number Matric card – 2.1, 2.11, 2.13

 Even number Matric card – 2.6, 2.10, 2.12

 Due date: Submit to e-learning 5 days after you receive the

textbook.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.31 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 End of Chapter 2

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013