DATA

COLLECTION
DATA COLLECTION
What is Data?
Data is a collection of facts, such as numbers, words,
measurements, observations or even just descriptions of things
Data is all around us. But what exactly is it?
Data is a value assigned to a thing.

Color, Shape, Number, Condition, Size

STEPS OF DATA COLLECTION
• Step 1: Identify issues and/or opportunities for collecting data
Step 2: Select issue/opportunity and set goals
Step 3: Plan an approach and methods
• Who will the data be collected about?
• Who will the group of interest be compared to?
• What locations or geographical areas will the data be gathered from?
• What categories will be used to identify the group of interest and
comparator group?
• How should data be collected?
(Qualitative Data and Quantitative Data)
• What sources of data should be used to collect information?
(Pre-existing data, Survey data, Interviews and focus groups, Observed
data)
• How long will the data be collected (the scope of data collection)?
Step 4: Collect data
Step 5: Analyze and interpret data
Step 6: Act on result
Quantitative and Qualitative Data
• Quantitative data collection methods rely on random
sampling and structured data collection instruments that fit
diverse experiences into predetermined response
categories
• They produce results that are easy to summarize and
compare
• Quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses
derived from theory and/or being able to estimate the size
of a phenomenon of interest
• Depending on the research question, participants may be
randomly assigned to different treatments.
Quantitative and Qualitative Data
• Qualitative data collection methods play an
important role in impact evaluation by providing
information useful to understand the processes
behind observed results and assess changes in
people’s perceptions of their well‐being  
• Qualitative methods can be used to improve the
quality of survey‐based quantitative evaluations
by helping generate evaluation hypothesis;
strengthening the design of survey questionnaires
and expanding or clarifying quantitative
evaluation findings. 
Quantitative and Qualitative Data
Typical quantitative data gathering strategies include:  
•Administering surveys with closed‐ended questions (e.g., face ‐to face
and telephone interviews, mail questionnaires, etc.)
•Experiments/clinical trials.  
•Observing and recording well‐defined events (e.g., counting the number
of patients waiting in emergency at specified times of the day). 
•Obtaining relevant data from management information systems. 
The qualitative methods most commonly used in evaluation can be
classified in three broad categories:
•In‐depth interview  
•Observation methods  
•Document review 
 Survey
• A survey is a research technique, which is used to
gather information from a sample of respondents by
employing a questionnaire.
•

• Surveys are normally carried out to obtain primary

data.
• Primary data are the data that are gathered first hand
to answer the research question being investigated.
 Survey
• Surveys are conducted by:
– Meeting the respondents in person
– Contacting the respondents through the telephone
– Conducting surveys through email
– Conducting online surveys through the Internet

• Researchers adopt any of these methods depending

on their requirement.
Criteria for Evaluating Survey Methods
Flexibility of Data Collection
• Extent to which the respondent can interact with the interviewer and the survey
questionnaire.
 Diversity of Questions
• Depends upon the degree of interaction the respondent has with the interviewer and the
questionnaire, as well as the ability to actually see the questions.
Sample Control
• Ability of the survey mode to reach the units specified in the sample effectively and
efficiently.
Control of the Data Collection Environment
• The degree of control a researcher has over the environment in which the respondent
answers the questionnaire.
Control of Field Force
• The ability to control the interviewers and supervisors involved in data collection.
Quantity of Data
• The ability to collect large amounts of data.
Criteria for Evaluating Survey Methods
Potential for Interviewer Bias
• Determined by the extent of the interviewer's role.
Speed
• The total time taken for administering the survey to the entire
sample.
Cost
• The total cost of administering the survey and collecting the
data.
Response Rate
• Percentage of the total attempted interviews that are completed.

Perceived Anonymity
• Respondents' perceptions that their identities will not be
discerned by the interviewer or the researcher.
 A Classification of Survey Methods
Survey
Methods

Telephone Personal Mail Electronic

In-Home Mall Computer- E-mail Internet

Intercept Assisted Personal
Interviewing

Traditional Computer- Mail Mail

Telephone Assisted Interview Panel
Telephone
Interviewing
 How do I organize a survey?
• Plan Ahead
– Set aside time to prepare questions
• Identify Goals
– Clearly identify the information that you want to obtain
from the survey
• Provide Instruction
– Explain why you are conducting the survey and provide any
additional instructions that they will need to complete the
questionnaire.
• Length of Survey/Questionnaire
– short (1-2 pages) and simple questionnaires usually attract
higher response rates than long (4 + pages) and complex
ones.
 How should I begin?
• It is good to have a personalized cover letter or an introductory
statement that:
– explains the purpose of the survey, the importance of the
respondent’s participation, the person who is responsible for
the survey.

• A good way to start is:

– “Hello. My name is ___(your name)___ and I am student at _(your
school or institution). I’m working on a research project looking
at __(title of your research project)_ for a course called ‘
( your course name).’ I was wondering if you have a few minutes

to answer some questions dealing with my research.”

• At the end always thank the respondent for
participating in your questionnaire.
QUESTIONNAIRES
Questionnaires often make use of checklist and rating
scales.  These devices help simplify and quantify people's
behaviors and attitudes.  A checklist is a list of behaviors,
characteristics, or other entities the researcher is looking
for.  Either the researcher or survey participant simply checks
whether each item on the list is observed, present or true or
vice versa.  A rating scale is 6 more useful when a behavior
needs to be evaluated on a continuum.  They are also known
as Likert scales
Mail Questionnaires
Advantages:
• Can be sent to a large number of people.
• Saves the researcher time and money compared to
interviewing.  
• People are more truthful while responding to the
questionnaires regarding controversial issues in particular
due to the fact that their responses are anonymous.  
• Allow the respondent to answer at their leisure.
Disadvantages:
• In most cases, the majority of people who receive
questionnaires don't return them.   Time – mail surveys
take longer than other types of surveys
Web‐based questionnaires
• A new and inevitably growing methodology is the use of Internet
based research. This would mean receiving an e‐mail on which you
would click on an address that would take you to a secure web‐site to
fill in a questionnaire   
Advantages:
• This type of research is often quicker and less detailed.   
• Very cost effective
Disadvantages:
• Excludes people who do not have a computer or are unable to access a
computer  
• Need to have access to email addresses
• Many worksites have screening mechanisms in place blocking access
to employee emails
• The validity of such surveys may be in question
 Questionnaire structure
• Well designed questionnaires are highly structured so
that the data can be analyzed quantitatively and
systematically.
• Proper questionnaire design is essential to ensure that
you obtain valid responses to the questions asked.
• In order to obtain accurate relevant information:
– give some thought to what questions we ask
– how we ask questions ,
– the order we ask questions, and the general layout of the
questionnaire.
 Types of Questions:
• Closed Format
– Respondents are forced to choose between several
given options.
– multiple choice, yes/no and ranking
• Advantages of closed format:
– Easy and quick to fill in
– Easy to code, record, and analyze results
quantitatively
– Easy to report results
 Types of Questions:
• Open Format: the respondents can formulate their own
answers.
– use the open format if you are looking for respondents to
provide specific comments or feedback.

• Advantages of open format:

• Allows exploration of the range of possible themes arising from
an issue
 How do I ask the questions?
• Use short and simple sentences.
• Ask for only one piece of information at a time.
– Example: Please rate the Global Environment Class in terms
of its content and presentation
– Should be divided into two parts:
– question one: “Please rate the class in terms of its
content”
– question two: “Please rate the class in terms of its
presentation.
– Avoid negatives if possible.
 How should I arrange the questions?
• Some general rules are:
– Go from general to specific.
– Go from easy to difficult.
– Start with closed format questions.
– Start with questions relevant to the main subject.
– Do not start with demographic and personal question

• Questionnaires must first be piloted and evaluated before the

actual survey
 Online resources
• Online surveys can be developed for little or no cost
through services such as Survey Monkey (
http://www.surveymonkey.com/).

• This site and similar services may help you to set up

your questions, administer your response, and analyze
your responses.
INTERVIEWS
• An interview is a purposeful discussion
between two or more people
• Help to gather valid and reliable data that
are relevant to research question and
objectives.
• In Quantitative research (survey research),
interviews are more structured than in
Qualitative research
• In a structured interview, the researcher
asks a standard set of questions and nothing
more
 Types of Interviews
• Structured (pre-decided questions)
• Unstructured (no pre-decided questions)
• Selection (job selection)
• Focused (focused on given experience of respondent)
• Group (in group of 6-8)
• Individual (single person)
• Qualitative & Quantitative (on basis of subject matter)
• Clinical interviews
• Depth interviews
Face‐to‐face interviews
Advantages:
•Enables the researcher to establish rapport with potential
participants and therefore gain their cooperation
•Yields the highest response rates in survey research
•Allows the researcher to clarify ambiguous answers and
when appropriate, seek follow‐up information
Disadvantages:
•Impractical when large samples are involved
•Can be time consuming and expensive.
Telephone interviews
Advantages:
•Less time consuming
•Less expensive  
•Researcher has ready access to anyone who has a landline telephone.   
•Higher response rate than the mail questionnaire.
•Can be fully automated using CATI (Computer Assisted Telephone
Interviewing) saving data processing time.
•Disadvantages:
•The response rate is not as high as the face‐to‐face interview
•The sample may be biased as only those people who have landline
phones are contacted (excludes people who do not have a phone, or only
have cell phones).
Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing
(CAPI)
• CAPI is a form of personal interviewing, but instead of
completing a questionnaire, the interviewer brings along a
laptop or hand‐held computer to enter the information
directly into the database.
Advantages:
• Saves time involved in processing the data.
• Saves the interviewer from carrying around hundreds of
questionnaires.   
Disadvantages:
• Can be expensive to set up.
• Requires that interviewers have computer and typing
skills. 
 Experiments

• Research experiments can be conducted for studying

cause-and-effect relationships.
In‐depth interviews
• In‐depth interviews are a useful qualitative data
collection technique that can be used for a variety
of purposes, including needs assessment, program
refinement, issue identification, and strategic
planning
• In‐depth interviews are most appropriate for
situations in which you want to ask open‐ended
questions that elicit depth of information from
relatively few people (as opposed to surveys,
which tend to be more quantitative and are
conducted with larger numbers of people)
Observation Methods
• One of the most common methods for qualitative
data collection, participant observation is also one of
the most demanding 
• It requires that the researcher become a participant
in the culture or context being observed  
• Participant observation often requires months or
years of intensive work because the researcher needs
to become accepted as a natural part of the culture
in order to assure that the observations are of the
natural phenomenon
Document review & Focus groups
• Document review is a way of collecting data by reviewing existing
documents
• The documents may be internal to a program or organization (such as
records of what components of an asthma management program were
implemented in schools) or may be external (such as records of
emergency room visits by students served by an asthma management
program)
• A focus group is a group interview of approximately six to twelve
people who share similar characteristics or common interests
• A facilitator guides the group based on a predetermined set of
topics.  The facilitator creates an environment that encourages
participants to share their perceptions and points of view.  Focus
groups are a qualitative data collection method, meaning that the data
is descriptive and cannot be measured numerically
Focus Groups
Advantages:
• Quick and relatively easy to set up
• The group dynamic can provide useful information that individual
data collection does not provide
• Is useful in gaining insight into a topic that may be more difficult to
gather through other data collection methods
Disadvantages:
• Susceptible to facilitator bias
• The discussion can be dominated or sidetracked by a few individuals
• Data analysis is time consuming and needs to be well planned in
advance
• Does not provide valid information at the individual level
• The information is not representative of other groups
 Observation
• Observation technique is a process where the
respondents are observed without any interruption by
the observers.

• Example:
– The shopping patterns of customers in supermarkets
assessed by the researcher or by counting the number of
vehicles can qualify as observation research.
Structured VS Unstructured Observation

• For structured observation, the researcher

specifies in detail what is to be observed and how
the measurements are to be recorded, e.g., an
auditor performing inventory analysis in a store.

• In unstructured observation, the observer

monitors all aspects of the phenomenon that
seem relevant to the problem at hand, e.g.,
observing children playing with new toys.
Disguised VS Undisguised Observation

• In disguised observation, the respondents are

unaware that they are being observed. Disguise
may be accomplished by using one-way mirrors,
hidden cameras, or inconspicuous mechanical
devices. Observers may be disguised as shoppers
or sales clerks.

• In undisguised observation, the respondents are

aware that they are under observation.
Natural VS Contrived Observation

• Natural observation involves observing behavior

as it takes places in the environment. For example,
one could observe the behavior of respondents
eating fast food in Burger King.

• In contrived observation, respondents' behavior

is observed in an artificial environment, such as a
test kitchen.
OBSERVATION METHODS

Classifying
Observation
Methods

Observation Methods

Personal Mechanical Audit Content Trace

Observation Observation Analysis Analysis
Observation Methods
1. Personal Observation

• A researcher observes actual behavior as it occurs.

• The observer does not attempt to manipulate the

phenomenon being observed but merely records
what takes place.

• For example, a researcher might record traffic

counts and observe traffic flows in a department
store.
Observation Methods
2. Mechanical Observation

•Do not require respondents' direct participation

– On-site cameras (still, motion picture, or video)
– Optical scanners in supermarkets

•Do require respondent involvement

– Eye-tracking monitors
– Voice pitch analyzers
– Devices measuring response latency
Observation Methods
3.Content Analysis

• The objective, systematic, and quantitative

description of the manifest content of a
communication.
• The unit of analysis may be words, characters,
themes, space and time measures or topics
• Analytical categories for classifying the units are
developed and the communication is broken down
according to prescribed rules.
 Observation Methods
4. Trace Analysis
Data collection is based on physical traces, or evidence, of past
behavior.

 The selective erosion of tiles in a museum indexed by the replacement

rate was used to determine the relative popularity of exhibits.
 The number of different fingerprints on a page was used to gauge the
readership of various advertisements in a magazine.
 The position of the radio dials in cars brought in for service was used
to estimate share of listening audience of various radio stations.
 The age and condition of cars in a parking lot were used to assess the
affluence of customers.
 The magazines people donated to charity were used to determine
people's favorite magazines.
 Internet visitors leave traces which can be analyzed to examine
browsing and usage behavior by using cookies.
Relative Advantages of Observation
• They permit measurement of actual behavior rather
than reports of intended or preferred behavior.
• There is no reporting bias, and potential bias
caused by the interviewer and the interviewing
process is eliminated or reduced.
• Certain types of data can be collected only by
observation.
• If the observed phenomenon occurs frequently or is
of short duration, observational methods may be
cheaper and faster than survey methods.
Relative Disadvantages of Observation
• The reasons for the observed behavior may not be
determined since little is known about the underlying
motives, beliefs, attitudes, and preferences.
• Selective perception (bias in the researcher's perception)
can bias the data.
• Observational data are often time-consuming and
expensive, and it is difficult to observe certain forms of
behavior.
• In some cases, the use of observational methods may be
unethical, as in observing people without their knowledge
or consent.
It is best to view observation as a complement to survey
methods, rather than as being in competition with them.
Case Study Method

• It is essentially an intensive investigation of

the particular unit under consideration. Its
important characteristics are as follows:
• (a) The researcher can take one single social
unit or more for his study purpose
• (b) Selected unit is intensively studied i.e.
in minute details