CP1402/1802/5631 Internet

Fundamentals

OSI Model
 The Seven-Layer OSI Model

• OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) reference

model - a seven-layer model developed to
categorize the layers of communication
• Developed by ISO in the 1980s
• The layers are numbered in order, starting
with Layer 1, the Physical layer at the bottom
– Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session,
Presentation, Application

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 The Seven-Layer OSI Model

All
People
Seem
To
Need
Data
Processing
Please
Do
Not
Tell
Stupid
People
Anything 3
 Layer 7: Application Layer
• Application layer - describes the interface between
two applications, on separate computers
• Application layer protocols are used by programs that
fall into two categories:
– Provide services to a user, such as a browser and Web
server
– Utility programs that provide services to the system, such
as SNMP that monitor and gather information about
network traffic
• Note: applications themselves are not considered
part of the application layer!
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 Layer 6: Presentation Layer

• Presentation layer - responsible for

reformatting, compressing, and/or encrypting
data in a way that the receiving application
can read
• Example:
– An email message can be encrypted at the
Presentation layer by the email client or by the OS

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 Layer 5: Session Layer

• Session layer - describes how data between

applications is synched and recovered if
messages don’t arrive intact at the receiving
application
• The Application, Presentation, and Session
layers are intertwined
– Often difficult to distinguish between them
• Most tasks are performed by the OS when an
application makes an API call to the OS
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 Layer 4: Transport Layer

• Transport layer - responsible for transporting

data from one application to another
• Two main Transport layer protocols are:
– TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) - makes a
connection with the end host, checks whether
data was received; called a connection-oriented
protocol
– UDP (User Datagram Protocol) - does not
guarantee delivery by first connecting and
checking whether data is received; called a
connectionless protocol 7
 Layer 4: Transport Layer

• The Transport layer header addresses the

receiving application by a number called a
port number
• If message is too large, TCP divides it into
smaller messages called segments
• In UDP, messages are split into datagrams

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 Layer 3: Network Layer
• Network layer - responsible for moving
messages from one node to another until
reaches destination
• IP adds its own Network layer header to the
segment or datagram
– The entire Network layer message is called a
packet
• IP address - assigned to each node on a
network
– Network layer uses it to uniquely identify each
host 9
 Layer 2: Data Link Layer

• Layers 2 and 1 are responsible for interfacing

with physical hardware on the local network
– Protocols at these layers are programmed into
firmware of a computer’s NIC and other hardware
• Type of networking hardware or technology
used on a network determine the Link Layer
protocol used
– Ethernet and Wi-Fi are examples

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 Layer 2: Data Link Layer

• Protocols add their own control information in

an area at the beginning of the payload (called
a header)
• Encapsulation - process of adding a header to
the data inherited from the layer above
• The Data Link layer packages control
information and data into frames

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 Layer 2: Data Link Layer

• MAC (Media Access Control) address -

hardware address of the source and
destination NICs
– Also called a physical address, hardware address,
or Data Link layer address
– Embedded on every network adapter and are
considered short-range addresses that can only
find nodes on the local network

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 Layer 2: Data Link Layer
• Two Data Link layer sublayers
– LLC (Logical Link Control) sublayer
– MAC (Media Access Control) sublayer
• MAC sublayer
– Manages access to the physical medium
– Appends physical address of destination computer onto
data frame
 Layer 1: Physical Layer

• Physical layer - responsible for sending bits via

a wired or wireless transmission
• Can be transmitted as:
– Wavelengths in the air
– Voltage on a copper wire
– Light (via fiber-optic cabling)

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 Protocol Data Unit or PDU

• Protocol data unit (PDU) - the technical name

for a group of bits as it moves from one layer
to the next and from one LAN to the next
– Technicians loosely call this group of bits a
message or a transmission

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 Protocol Data Unit or PDU
• Layers 5-7
– PDU is called the data or payload
• Layer 4
– PDU is called a segment (TCP) or datagram (UTP)
• Layer 3
– PDU is called a packet
• Layer 2
– PDU is called a frame
• Layer 1
– PDU consists of bits

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Summary of How the Layers Work Together

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Summary of How the Layers Work Together

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Summary of How the Layers Work Together
Sending host
1. The browser, involving the Application, Presentation, and Session layers, creates an
HTTP message or payload on its source computer and passes it down to the Transport
layer.
2. The Transport layer (TCP, which is part of the OS) encapsulates the payload by adding
its own header and passes the segment down to the Network layer.
3. IP at the Network layer in the OS receives the segment, adds its header and trailer,
and passes the frame to the Physical layer.
4. The Data Link layer on the NIC firmware receives the packet, adds its header and
trailer, and passes the frame to the Physical layer.
5. The Physical layer on the NIC hardware puts bits on the network.
Switch
6. The network transmission is received by a Data Link layer switch, which passes the
frame up to the Data Link layer (firmware on the switch), which looks at the
destination MAC address to decide where to send the frame.
7. The pass-through frame is sent to the correct port on the switch and on to the router.

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Summary of How the Layers Work Together
Router
8. The router has two NICs, one for each of the two networks to which it belongs. The
Physical layer of the first NIC receives the frame and passes it up to the Data Link layer
(NIC firmware), which removes the frame header and trailer and passes the packet up
to IP at the Network layer (firmware program or other software) on the router.
9. This Network layer IP program looks at the destination IP address and determines the
node en route for the packet and passes the packet back down to the Data Link layer
on the second NIC. The Data Link layer adds a new frame header and trailer
appropriate for this second NIC’s LAN, including the MAC address of the next
destination node. It passes this frame to its Physical layer (NIC hardware), which
sends the bits on their way.
Destination host
10. When the frame reaches the destination host NIC, the Data Link layer NIC firmware
receives it, removes the frame header and trailer, and passes the packet up to IP at the
Network layer, which removes its header and passes the segment up to TCP at the
Transport layer.
11. TCP removes its header and passes the payload up to HTTP at the Application layer.
HTTP presents the message to the Web server.

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HTTP Example
 Summary

• 7-layer OSI model

– “All People Seem To Need Data Processing”
– “Please Do Not Tell Stupid People Anything”
1. Physical
2. Data link
3. Network
4. Transport
5. Session
6. Presentation
7. Application
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CP1402/1802/5631 Internet
Fundamentals

Introduction to Troubleshooting
Troubleshooting Network Problems

• Troubleshooting steps used by most expert

networking troubleshooters:
1. Identify problem
• Gather information
• Identify symptoms
• Question users
• Determine if anything has changed
2. Establish theory of probable cause
• Question the obvious

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Troubleshooting Network Problems

• Troubleshooting steps
3. Test theory to determine cause
• If theory confirmed, determine next steps
• If theory not confirmed, establish new theory or
escalate
4. Establish action plan
5. Implement solution or escalate the problem
6. Verify full functionality
• Implement preventative measures if applicable
7. Document findings, actions, outcomes
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 Summary

• Troubleshooting steps
1. Identify the problem
2. Establish theory of probable cause
3. Test theory to determine cause
4. Establish action plan
5. Implement solution or escalate
6. Verify full functionality
7. Document findings, actions, outcomes

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