Hydrometry

 Hydrometry is the monitoring of the

components of the hydrological cycle including
rainfall,ground water characteristics, as well as
water quality and flow characteristics of surface
Water
 The term hydrometry as derived from the
Greek: Hydro = water; metros = measuring.
 Hydrometry is concerned with the
measurements of all the variables in the
hydrological (water) cycle
 Hydrological information is therefore necessary
for the practice of efficient water
management
 Why Hydrometry
 Water is a major issue in the world
where more than one quarter of its
population still do not have safe drinking
water.
 An increasing demand is therefore
placed on Hydrometry to provide the
essential hydrometric information in
order that the world's water resources
may be managed more efficiently
 Gauging Station
 Gauging station is a location used by
hydrologists or environmental scientists to
monitor and test terrestrial bodies of water
 Various hydrometry readings are made at
gauging stations such as volumetric flow
rate and water quality
 The location of gauging stations are often
found on topographical maps.
 Some gauging stations are highly
automated and may include telemetry
(capability transmitted to a central data
logging facility)
 Surface Water Flow Measurement
Introduction
 Measurement of surface water flow is an
important component of most water
quality monitoring projects.
 Flooding, stream geomorphology, and
aquatic life support are all directly
influenced by stream flow,
 Runoff and stream flow drive the
generation, transport, and delivery of
many non point source (NPS) pollutants.
 Calculation of pollutant loads requires
knowledge of water flow.
 Surface Water Flow Measurement
GENERAL
 Public concepts of how to share and
manage the finite supplies of water are
changing
 Increasing competition exists between
power, irrigation, municipal, industrial,
recreation, aesthetic, fish and wildlife
uses
 Good water management requires
accurate water measurement
 The key to conservation is good water
measurement practices
 Surface Flow Fundamentals
 Surface water flow is simply the continuous
movement of water in runoff or open
channels.
 This flow is often quantified as discharge,
defined as the rate of flow or the volume of
water that passes through a channel cross
section in a specific period of time.
 Discharge can be reported as total volume
(e.g., acre-ft or millions of gallons) or as a
rate such as cubic feet per second (ft3/s or
cfs) or cubic meters per second (m3/s)
 STREAMFLOW
Streamflow is generated by snowmelt, rainfall and groundwater
entering a channel
Stream Flow Components
 Direct precipitation on the channel (typically incorporated into total basin
area)
 Overland flow: when soil moisture storage and depression storage are
filled “excess” rainfall generates overland flow.
 Interflow: all rainfall that infiltrates does not reach saturated zone (ground
water). Under certain conditions, infiltrated moisture can travel through
shallow soil horizons. Usually only significant for highly permeable soils.
 Baseflow: contribution to stream flow from groundwater

Overland flow
Saturated
interflow overland flow

Base flow
 Factors Affecting Streamflow
Factors affecting run-off are in two categories namely

Climatic :Type of precipitation, rainfall intensity,

duration of rainfall, distribution of rainfall on the
basin, antecedent soil moisture and other climatic
factors.

Physiographic factors: land use, slope,

catchment area, shape, elevation, type of drainage
network, etc
 Streamgaging
Streamgaging involves:
 Obtaining a continuous record of
stage,
 Making periodic discharge
measurements,
 Establishing and maintaining a
relation between the stage and
discharge,
 Applying the stage-discharge relation
to the stage record to obtain a
continuous record of discharge
 SPECIFIC PURPOSES FOR STREAM
GAUGING
 To enhance the public safety by providing data
for forecasting and managing floods
 To delineate and manage flood plains
 To characterize current water-quality
conditions
 To operate and design multipurpose reservoirs
- For domestic and Agricultural water supply
- For flood control
- For energy generation
PURPOSES FOR STREAM GAUGING –Cont.
 To set minimum flow requirements to meet
aquatic life goals (habitat spawning area, food
source, migration paths of fish and other wildlife)
 To monitor compliance with minimum flow
requirements
 To develop or operate recreation facilities
 To allocate water for municipal, industrial, and
irrigation uses
 To evaluate surface- and ground-water
interaction
 To facilitate long-term scientific studies of any
changes in the hydrologic cycle
Basic Principles of Discharge Measurement
 Determination of discharge thus requires
measurements of velocity of moving water and
cross-sectional area of the water in the channel
 The product of these two measurements gives
discharge in volume per unit time
 The the velocity of moving water varies both
across a stream channel and from the surface to
the bottom of the stream because of friction and
irregularities in cross-section and alignment.
 Friction caused by the rough channel surfaces
slows the water near the bottom and sides of a
channel so that the fastest water is usually near
the center of the channel and near the surface..
Water Velocity in a Cross-section of a Stream
 General Rules of Thumb
 Maximum velocity occurs at 5–25% of the depth,
this percentage increases with increasing stream
depth.
 Mean velocity in a vertical profile is approximated
by the velocity at 0.6 depth.
 Mean velocity in a vertical profile is more
accurately represented by the mean of the
velocities at 0.2 and 0.8 depth.
 The mean velocity in a vertical profile is 80–95%
of the surface velocity, the average of several
hundred observations being 85%.
Basic Principles of Water Measurement
 Most devices measure flow indirectly.
 Flow measuring devices are commonly
classified into those that sense or
measure velocity and those that
measure pressure or head.
 The head or velocity is measured, and
then charts, tables, or equations are
used to obtain the discharge
Types of Measuring Devices
Some water measuring devices that
use measurement of head, h, or
pressure, p, to determine discharge,
Q, are:
 Weirs
 Flumes
 Orifices
 Submerged orifices
 Current meters
 Venturi meters
 Selection Considerations
The main factors which influence the selection of
a measuring device include:
Accuracy requirements
Fund availability
Legal constraints
Range of flow rates
Head loss
Adaptability to site conditions
Adaptability to variable operating conditions
Type of measurements and records needed
Operating requirements
 Selection Considerations
 Abilityto pass sediment and debris
 Longevity of device for given environment
 Maintenance requirements
 Construction and installation requirements
 Device standardization and calibration
 Field verification, troubleshooting, and
repair
 User acceptance of new methods
 Vandalism potential
 Impact on environment
 Selection Guidelines
 Selection of a water measurement method
can be a difficult, time-consuming process
if one were to formally evaluate all the
factors
 However useful devices are sometimes
overlooked when similar devices are
automatically selected.
 There is a need to provide some
preliminary guidance on selection so that
the number of choices can be narrowed
down before a more thorough analysis of
the tradeoffs between alternatives is
performed
 Application-Based Selection of Water
Measurement Devices
 Rivers
 Periodic current metering of a control
section
 Stage-discharge relation
 Broad-crested weirs
 Long-throated flumes
 Short-crested weirs
 Float-velocity/area method
 Slope-area method
 Application-Based Selection of
Water Measurement Devices
 Intermediate-sized and small streams
 Current metering/control section
 Broad-crested weirs
 Long-throated flumes
 Short-crested weirs
 Short-throated flumes
 Float-velocity/area method
 Application-Based Selection of
Water Measurement Devices
 Regulated channels
 Spillways
– Gated
» Sluice gates
» Radial gates
– Ungated
» Broad-crested weirs (including special
crest shapes, Ogee crest, etc.)
» Short-crested weirs
 STREAMFLOW MEASURING
DEVICES

Flume used for small stream Structure of a Parshall flume Structural example of a
flow measurements V-notch weir

Various parts of a
stilling well: left
figure showing most
appropriate location
by a bridge to ensure
channel stability;
right figure shows the
different parts of a
stilling well.
 STREAM FLOW MEASURING
DEVICES - Continue
Current meter –
Price pigmy
acoustic doppler
stream flow
velocity meter –
measuring device –
used for infrequent
done from a
non-continuous
suspended
water velocity
position.
measurement (has
high accuracy)

Mechanical (Pygmy) current meter for

infrequent flow measurement – vertical axis Mechanical current meter –
horizontal axis
 Current Meter
 The most common method used for
measuring discharge is the
mechanical current-meter method.
 In this method, the stream channel
cross section is divided into
numerous vertical subsections
 Estimation of streamflow - Velocity-area method

• Measure V (current meter) at 0.2 and 0.8 of depth

• Average V and multiply by A (area = width * depth)
• Sum up across stream to get total Q = (Vi Ai)

Vi  V0.2  V0.8  2
n
Q   Vi DiWi
i 1
 Determining the cross-sectional area of a flowing
stream usually involves measuring water depths at
a series of points across the stream and
multiplying by the width of the stream within each
segment represented by the depth measurement.
 The areas are summed to determine the entire
cross-sectional area
 MEASURING AND RECORDING
WATER STAGE/HEAD
 The stage of a stream, canal, or lake is the
height of the water surface above an
established datum
 Records of stage are important in stream
gaging because the rate of flow is plotted
against stage (Stage discharge curves).
 After a curve has been established for a
stable channel, rate of flow can be directly
determined from stage reading
 Reliability of the stage reading is of great
importance.
 DEFINITION
 Stage height – Height of the water in a stream
above a certain baseline
 Rating curve – A graphical representation of the
relationship between the stage height and the
discharge.
 Stream flow or discharge – is volume flow of water
(in cubic feet) moving past a cross-section of a
stream during a specific period of time (in seconds),
hence the discharge unit is cubic feet per second.
 Measurement Surface Water

Staff Gauges for Water Surface Elevation Measurement

 Measurement of stage

The stage (river stage or water surface elevation) is

measured using:
• Non-recording stream gages
- staff gages or wire gages
Measurement of stage
 Head/Stage Measurements
 Head measurements in all types of water
measurement structures, including
various flumes, weirs, and gates, are
equally important.
 Records of gage height may be obtained
from a series of systematic readings on
non-recording gages or from automatic
water-stage recorders.
 Laser, satellite, microwave, and
electronic systems can be used to
transmit gage readings from either non-
recording or recording gages
 Datum of Gage
A convenient and meaningful elevation
datum should be selected for the station
 The operating datum for the station should
be set below the water-stage elevation for
zero flow
 The operating datum can be referenced to
mean sea level.
 The datum should be permanent for the
expected life of the station and should be
referenced to at least two or three other
benchmarks that are independent of the
gaging structure.
 Measurement Method
Two basic philosophies can be used to
determine stage or gage height direct
and indirect.
Direct methods involve a
measurement of the height from the
liquid level to a datum line;
An indirect method refers the stage
level from some other characteristic,
such as the head read by a pressure
transducer
 Non-recording Gages
Two general types of non-recording
gages are in use:
Staff gages, on which readings of
stage are made directly; and
Chain, wire weight, float-type,
and hook gages, with which
measurements are made from
fixed points.
 Recording Gages
 Water-stage recorders consist of a
group of instruments that produce a
record of water surface elevation with
respect to time.
 The output can be analog (providing a
graphical result) or digital (punched
paper tape or stored or transmitted
values).
 Development of a Rating Curve
 Rating curve is for a given point on a
stream, usually at gauging stations, where
the stream discharge is measured across
the stream channel with a flow meter
 Numerous measurements of stream
discharge are made over a range of stream
stages.
 The rating curve is usually plotted as
discharge on x-axis versus stage (surface
elevation) on y-axis.
Development of a Rating Curve
The development of a rating curve involves
two steps.
In the first step the relationship between
stage and discharge is established by
measuring the stage and corresponding
discharge in the river.
And in the second part, stage of river is
measured and discharge is calculated by
using the relationship established in the
first part
 Development of a Rating Curve
 Stage is measured by reading a gauge installed
in the river.
 If the stage-discharge relationship doesn’t
change with time, it is called permanent control.
 If the relationship does change, it is called
shifting control.
 Shifting control is usually due to erosion or
deposition of sediment at the stage
measurement site.
 Bedrock-bottomed parts of rivers or
concrete/metal weirs or structures are often,
though not always, permanent controls.
 Development of a Rating Curve
The rating curve must be checked periodically to
ensure that the relationship between the discharge
and gage height has remained constant.

Scouring of the stream bed or deposition of

sediment in the stream can cause the rating curve
to change so that the same recorded gage height
produces a different discharge.
 EQUATION OF STAGE-DISCHARGE CURVES

If the flow in a reach is uniform (cross

sections are approximately similar in
shape and area in the reach)
The general equation of the
rating curve is parabolic
The rating curve is usually plotted
as stage (x-axis) versus discharge
(y-axis).
ARTHMETIC PLOT
Logarithmic Plotting
LOGARITHMIC PLOT
 Breaks in Stage-Discharge Curve
 Sometimes flows become distinctly
non-uniform at higher stages and
the general equation does not
strictly speaking apply.
 In such cases, the equation
applies only for the lower stages in
other cases it applies throughout
the range but with a change of the
exponent n.
 Breaks in Stage-Discharge Curve
CASE I
 Where bank overflow occurs, there must
be a break in rating curve at the bank full
stage level.
 The general equation may apply
throughout the range of stage but the
value of n changes at the bank full stage
level
 Breaks in Stage-Discharge Curve
CASE II
 Breaks in the rating curve also occur
where controls become effective e.g.
a construction in the channel
downstream of the gauging site may
serve as control from medium to
high stages only
 During these stages the equation
may not apply, or if applicable, have
a changed value of n
 Breaks in Stage-Discharge Curve
CASE III
 When there is a shifting control, the stage-
discharge relation is not permanent but varies
from time to time, either gradually or abruptly,
owing to aggradation or degradation.
 Normally only the lower part of the curve would
be significantly affected and a family of the
curves is sometimes constructed.
CASE IV
 Changes in vegetation may effect the stage-
discharge relation causing variations in the
exponent n or in the equation
 Gauge Height for Zero Flow
 Ordinarily“a” the difference between zero
gauge height and the level of zero flow is
not zero and its magnitude is unknown

 Plotting Q against H on log-log paper

when “a” is not zero will produce a curve.
If the value of “a” is known Q can be
plotted against (H-a) and a straight line
results
Method to Determine the Value of ‘a’
 A field investigation is made of the
gauging-station; normally the lowest level
of the low flow control can be taken as
the gauge height for zero flow
 Various values of “a” are assumed until
values of Q against (H-a) gives a straight
line on log-log paper. Note that to obtain
the best result, Q and (H-a) values
should be selected from the average
curve and not be the actual values
 CHARACTERISTICS THAT INFLUENCE
DATA QUALITY AND RELIABILITY

 Instrument Reliability
 Instrument Maintenance
 Data Handling
 Data Processing
 Data Accessibility (Location)
 Spatial Distribution and Representativeness
of the Data
 Availability of Knowledgeable and Dedicated
Personnel
 Applications of Flow Data
 Determine basic hydrology of a watershed (e.g.,
water budget)
 Characterize water quantity problems in a
watershed and evaluate efforts to restore
natural flow regimes
 Identify major sources of pollutant loads in
watershed
 Characterize habitat problems in stream
channels
 Collect habitat data in support fish monitoring
 Quantify discharges from tributaries or major
sources
 Applications of Flow Data
 Calibrate watershed models
 Collect design information for water
quantity, water quality, or stream
restoration practices
 Quantity pollutant loads in support of
watershed project planning efforts
 Quantify pollutant loads before and after
implementation of monitoring program to
determine project effectiveness
 EXAMPLE

b
q = K(z - z 0 )
 LOG PLOT

1000

Discharge (m )
100

10

1
0.1 1 10
Stage (m)

ARTHMETIC PLOT

350
300
Discharge (m3/S)

250
200
150
100
50
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Stage (m)