CONTENT

ANALYSIS
 Content analysis is a research tool used to determine the presence of certain

words, themes, or concepts within some given qualitative data (i.e. text). Using

content analysis, researchers can quantify and analyze the presence, meanings and

relationships of such certain words, themes, or concepts. As an example, researchers

can evaluate language used within a news article to search for bias or partiality.

Researchers can then make inferences about the messages within the texts, the

writer(s), the audience, and even the culture and time of surrounding the text.
Sources of data could be from interviews, open-ended questions, field research

notes, conversations, or literally any occurrence of communicative language

(such as books, essays, discussions, newspaper headlines, speeches, media,

historical documents). A single study may analyze various forms of text in its

analysis. To analyze the text using content analysis, the text must be coded, or

broken down, into manageable code categories for analysis (i.e. “codes”). Once

the text is coded into code categories, the codes can then be further categorized

into “code categories” to summarize data even further.

Three different definition of content analysis are provided below.

Definition 1: “Any technique for making inferences by systematically and

objectively identifying special characteristics of messages.”

Definition 2: “An interpretive and naturalistic approach. It is both observational

and narrative in nature and relies less on the experimental elements normally

associated with scientific research (reliability, validity and generalizability)

Definition 3: “A research technique for the objective, systematic and quantitative

description of the manifest content of communication.”

USES OF CONTENT ANALYSIS

• Identify the intentions, focus or communication trends of an individual, group or

institution

• Describe attitudinal and behavioral responses to communications

• Determine psychological or emotional state of persons or groups

• Reveal international differences in communication content

• Reveal patterns in communication content

• Pre-test and improve an intervention or survey prior to launch

• Analyze focus group interviews and open-ended questions to complement

quantitative data
TYPES OF CONTENT ANALYSIS

There are two general types of content analysis: conceptual analysis and relational

analysis.

Conceptual analysis determines the existence and frequency of concepts in a text.

Relational analysis develops the conceptual analysis further by examining the

relationships among concepts in a text. Each type of analysis may lead to different

results, conclusions, interpretations and meanings.

CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS

Typically people think of conceptual analysis when they think of content

analysis. In conceptual analysis, a concept is chosen for examination and the analysis

involves quantifying and counting its presence.

The main goal is to examine the occurrence of selected terms in the data. Terms

may be explicit or implicit. Explicit terms are easy to identify. Coding of implicit

terms is more complicated: you need to decide the level of implication and base

judgments on subjectivity (issue for reliability and validity).

 Therefore, coding of implicit terms involves using a dictionary or contextual

translation rules or both. To begin a conceptual content analysis, first identify the

research question and choose a sample or samples for analysis.

Next, the text must be coded into manageable content categories. This is basically

a process of selective reduction. By reducing the text to categories, the researcher can

focus on and code for specific words or patterns that inform the research question.
GENERAL STEPS FOR CONDUCTING A CONCEPTUAL CONTENT

ANALYSIS:

 Decide the level of analysis: word, word sense, phrase, sentence, themes.

 Decide how many concepts to code for: develop pre-defined or interactive set

of categories or concepts.

 Decide whether to code for existence or frequency of a concept. The decision

changes the coding process.

 Decide on how you will distinguish among concepts

 Develop rules for coding your texts. After decision of step 1-4 are complete,

a researcher can begin developing rules for translation of text into codes.
GENERAL STEPS FOR CONDUCTING A CONCEPTUAL CONTENT

ANALYSIS:

 Decide what to do with irrelevant information.

 Code the text: This can be done by hand or by using software.

 Analyze your results: Draw conclusions and generalizations where possible.

RELATIONAL ANALYSIS

Relational analysis begins like conceptual analysis, where a concept is chosen for

examination. However, the analysis involves exploring the relationships between

concepts. Individual concepts are viewed as having no inherent meaning and rather

the meaning is a product of the relationships among concepts.

To begin a relational content analysis, first identify a research question and

choose a sample or samples for analysis. The research question must be focused so

the concept types are not open to interpretation and can be summarized.
Next, select text for analysis. Select text for analysis carefully by balancing having

enough information for a thorough analysis so results are not limited with having

information that is too extensive so that the coding process becomes too arduous and

heavy to supply meaningful and worthwhile results.

There are three subcategories of relational analysis to choose from prior to going on
to the general steps.
1. Affect extraction: an emotional evaluation of concepts explicit in a text. A
challenge to this method is that emotions can vary across time, populations, and
space. However, it could be effective at capturing the emotional and psychological
state of the speaker or writer of the text.
2. Proximity analysis: an evaluation of the co-occurrence of explicit concepts in
the text. Text is defined as a string of words called a “window” that is scanned for the
co-occurrence of concepts. The result is the creation of a “concept matrix”, or a group
of interrelated co-occurring concepts that would suggest an overall meaning.
3. Cognitive mapping: a visualization technique for either affect extraction or
proximity analysis. Cognitive mapping attempts to create a model of the overall
meaning of the text such as a graphic map that represents the relationships between
concepts.
GENERAL STEPS FOR CONDUCTING A RELATIONAL CONTENT

ANALYSIS:

 Determine the type of analysis.

 Reduce the text to categories and code for words or patterns.

 Explore the relationship between concepts

 Code the relationships

 Perform statistical analyses

 Map out representations

RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY

Reliability: Because of the human nature of researchers, coding errors can never be

eliminated but only minimized. Generally, 80% is an acceptable margin for reliability.

Three criteria comprise the reliability of a content analysis:

1. Stability: the tendency for coders to consistently re-code the same data in the

same way over a period of time.

2. Reproducibility: tendency for a group of coders to classify categories

membership in the same way.

3. Accuracy: extent to which the classification of text corresponds to a standard

or norm statistically.
Validity: Three criteria comprise the validity of a content analysis:

1. Closeness of categories: this can be achieved by utilizing multiple classifiers to

arrive at an agreed upon definition of each specific category. Using multiple

classifiers, a concept category that may be an explicit variable can be broadened to

include synonyms or implicit variables.

2. Conclusions: What level of implication is allowable? Do conclusions correctly

follow the data? Are results explainable by other phenomena? This becomes

especially problematic when using computer software for analysis and distinguishing

between synonyms.
For example, the word “mine,” variously denotes a personal pronoun, an explosive
device, and a deep hole in the ground from which ore is extracted. Software can
obtain an accurate count of that word’s occurrence and frequency, but not be able to
produce an accurate accounting of the meaning inherent in each particular usage. This
problem could throw off one’s results and make any conclusion invalid.

3. Generalizability of the results to a theory: dependent on the clear definitions of

concept categories, how they are determined and how reliable they are at measuring
the idea one is seeking to measure. Generalizability parallels reliability as much of it
depends on the three criteria for reliability.
Advantages of Content Analysis
 Directly examines communication using text Allows for both qualitative and
quantitative analysis
 Provides valuable historical and cultural insights over time
 Allows a closeness to data
 Coded form of the text can be statistically analyzed
 Unobtrusive means of analyzing interactions
 Provides insight into complex models of human thought and language use
 When done well, is considered a relatively “exact” research method
 Content analysis is a readily-understood and an inexpensive research method
 A more powerful tool when combined with other research methods such as
interviews, observation, and use of archival records. It is very useful for
analyzing historical material, especially for documenting trends over time.
Disadvantages of Content Analysis
 Can be extremely time consuming
 Is subject to increased error, particularly when relational analysis is used to
attain a higher level of interpretation
 Is often devoid of theoretical base, or attempts too liberally to draw
meaningful inferences about the relationships and impacts implied in a study
 Is inherently reductive, particularly when dealing with complex texts
 Tends too often to simply consist of word counts
 Often disregards the context that produced the text, as well as the state of
things after the text is produced
 Can be difficult to automate or computerize
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